The History of Smallpox, Using it as A Weapon, Development The First Vaccine, and The Invention of The Bifurcated Vaccination Needle

By: Patience Elett...Enjoy :)

< The Bifurcated Needle Today

 < The Bifurcated Needle Then

 < Edward Jenner

 < Benjamin A. Rubin


http://www.questiaschool.com/read < Cross Section of the Smallpox Virus

I. Introduction

Smallpox was an epidemic that was highly contagious and deadly. It left pock marks all over your body for the rest of your life; if you were lucky to survive.  It was also used as a weapon in wars. To this day there is no cure, although Edward Jenner discovered the first vaccine. Jenner realized that the old housewife’s tale seemed to have some truth to it. The rumor was that milk maids never got small pox.  He decided to find out whether or not it was correct. He designed an experiment, tested it, and in turn discovered the first vaccine to ever be introduced to the world. Of course, it’s easier and cleaner to use a needle for vaccinations than using a knife like Jenner. So Benjamin A. Rubin invented the Bifurcated Needle which was used to administer the smallpox vaccination.

II. History of Smallpox

THE HISTORY OF THE ERADICATION OF SMALLPOX

4000 B.C.          Smallpox originates in Asia or Africa

1157 B.C.          Pharaoh Ramses V dies of s.p. (smallpox)

910 A.D.            Clinical profile first described by Rhazes

1096-1291         Crusaders bring smallpox back to Europe

1400-1800         European fatalities routinely in excess of 500,000 per year

1520                  Aztec empire collapses

1723                  Variolation introduced to Europe

1763                  First use of s.m. as a bioweapon (against native American Indians)

1796                  Vaccination introduced by E. Jenner

1840                  Variolation outlawed in Europe

1950                  Freeze-dried viccinia developed

1967                  WHO-intensified eradication program initiated

1977                  Last natural case of s.p. (Somalia)

1993                  Variola DNA genomes sequenced

1999                  IOM report reccomends further research into variola virus (United States)

2001                  United States announces that the CDC's variola stock will be retained

2002                  WHO recommends postponement of destruction of variola virus stock

*note: the advances in s.p. treatment and vaccines coincided.

a.    Early Epidemics

Before the mid-twentieth century, Smallpox was one of the most horrific diseases. Even if you were lucky enough to survive, your entire face and body would be forever scarred with pockmarks. It was tremendously communicable between humans; it was also one of the deadliest diseases that existed (before it was eradicated). Essentially undefeatable smallpox plagues go back several thousands of years in history. Smallpox enveloped china, Mesopotamia, and the Roman Empire in ancient times. There are records about a smallpox-like disease from the Indian subcontinent, dating around 1500 B.C.

b.   Eradication Program

The poxvirus is very host-specific, and its only residence was the human being.  Knowing this information, immunologists got together and set up a worldwide organization to flat out delete the smallpox virus. The only things they needed in order to complete this goal were a large supply of effective vaccine and numerous field workers. They started working towards this huge goal by isolation and prevention. If any smallpox was spotted, they would take everyone who was or could be infected, and isolate them in different rooms. They would also prevent smallpox by vaccinating everyone near and outbreak of the variola virus (smallpox).  By 1977, it appeared that they had completed their goal, but it wasn’t until 1980 that the World Health Assembly and WHO announced that it had successfully been erased.

 

c.    Remaining Stocks

   No new cases have been brought into view since then; although the United States and the Soviet Union kept supplies of smallpox for military, defense, and research purposes. No one knows whether or not these supplies have been raided or have leaked to other countries and organizations; terrorist groups being among them. Taking into consideration that most people have not been vaccinated against smallpox for more than a quarter of a century, it is conceivable that if the virus were to leak out again; then the aftermath would be more catastrophic than the original outbreaks.

d.   Variolation

Variolation is a method of preventing the full effects of smallpox; if you were to obtain any. In this process, you take a scab from an infected person and either instill it into the nasal passages; or get it injected into your skin. 1% of these people would get severe infections and die.

e.    Molecular Biology

I.                  The Smallpox Genome

The brick-shaped virions of the smallpox virus can be seen by light microscopy because they are bigger than many bacteria. The pathogen becomes active after it is inside the cell and lost enough of the viral envelope to allow genetic material to be transcribed and translated.  The Virion is made up of four main parts: core, lateral bodies, outer membrane, + envelope; which is broken down once the Virion gets inside the cell. Disulfide proteins allegedly hold together the outer membrane. The core membrane is what holds the viral deoxyribonucleic acid. The genome is ranked one of the longest viral genomes and is made of a single, linear, double-stranded section of DNA. Genes located within the center of the genome execute fundamental functions; including transcription and replication.

II.               The Infectious Agent

Externally enveloped virions (EEVs) and cell-associated enveloped virions (CEVs) are very important for variola to spread to other cells of the human. EEVs enter cells by using endocytosis. CEVs control efficient cell-to-cell spreading to close by cells; EEVs control transmissions over a long range.

f.     Types of Smallpox

I.                  Ordinary-Type

With this type of infection, the incubation period can be from 7-19 days. Most cases need 11-14 days after exposure until symptoms are obvious. The first symptom is an abrupt fever of 38.5-40.5 C. other symptoms include splitting headaches, severe backaches, and rarely convulsions and delirium. 50% have nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Many doctors misdiagnose the early stage as appendicitis.  After fever, the eruptive phase starts. The eruptive phase consists of lesions, rashes, and most likely, death.

II.               Modified-Type

Modified type is the same thing as ordinary type, with the exception that the symptoms happen and show faster. Modified also tends to cause less lesions than ordinary type. Scabbing is complete within 11 days. There have not been any recorded deaths caused by modified type smallpox.

III.           Flat-Type

No raised legions

IV.           Hemorrhagic-Type

Most deadly form of smallpox; but most people don’t die from the loss of blood they die from heart failure mostly.

III. Weaponization of Smallpox

In the beginning, armies would be sent out wearing smallpox infected clothes; in order to contaminate the enemy. Now in modern times when smallpox and wars were raging allover the world, they would send out a suicide contaminist. Much like the kind of idea we have developed today for suicide bombers.

IV. Discovery and Development of the Vaccine + Edward Jenner Biography

Today, we have vaccinations of many colors, measures, inventions, sizes, and cures. But where did it all start? It started with a simple observation. Something you or I could have noticed. Edward Jenner was born Berkeley, England. He was the 3^rd son and the youngest of all six children of Stephen Jenner; a clergyman of the Church of England.  He became an orphan boy at the tender age of five and was raised by his clergy brother. At thirteen, he was apprenticed to a surgeon. In 1770, he moved to London, England to work with John Hunter; a beginning Scottish anatomist and surgeon. Jenner didn’t feel quite at home in London, so he moved back to Berkeley in his mid twenties. He made himself known as a local doctor. He spent free time traveling the countryside and drinking with friends.

Edward Jenner was still a teenager in an apprenticeship to Daniel Ludlow when he first heard an old wife’s tale about smallpox from one of Gloucestershire’s milkmaids. The story goes that milkmaids never need fear smallpox if they’ve caught cowpox. This tale intrigued young Jenner. He was determined to investigate. In May 1796, he treated a milkmaid, Sarah Nelmes, for cowpox. May 14^th, 1796, he got approval from an 8 year old boy’s parents to use the child for an experiment. The child’s name was James Phipps. Jenner scratched James’s arm twice with a knife, then took some pus from the cowpox legion on Sarah’s hand; and then smeared it on the cuts. They waited a week, James got a little bit sick; and then was fine after 24 hours. About a month later Jenner cut James twice again, then smeared pus from a smallpox infected man on the cuts. James developed blisters at the cuts, but no other signs of smallpox. Thus; the first vaccination was made.

He was rejected for his paper. He tried again and personally published it.  

VI. Bifurcated Needle and Benjamin A. Rubin Biography

Benjamin A. Rubin was a microbiologist born in New York City in 1917. At that time, smallpox was killing more than 2 million people a year. He received his B.S. in biology-chemistry from the College of the City of New York, his M.S. in biology from Virginia Polytechnic Institute, and in 1947, his Ph.D. in microbiology from Yale. Post-grad, he worked for tons of labs and universities before getting a job at Wyeth Laboratories; which was where he began experimenting with needles. In 1965, he began working on what he would be most famous for; the bifurcated vaccination needle. He made this needle by grinding down the eyelet of a regular sewing machine needle. His discovery made vaccinations a lot cheaper and easily accessed, especially for people in underprivileged parts of the world. This needle worked by dipping it into the vaccine, making sure the drop of vaccine is in between the two prongs; and repeatedly poking it on the arm of the patient.

VII. Journal Article Review

There are three sections to my journal article. Each one is professionally written by Edward Jenner himself. The first section is called An Inquiry Into the Causes and Effects of the Variola Vaccine, or Cow-pox. 1798. The second section is titled Further Observations on the Variola Vaccine, or Cow-pox. 1799. The third is a continuation of Facts and Observations Relative to the Variola Vaccine, or Cow-pox. 1800. Each section talks about all the trials that Jenner has done. Section three is a little bit different than the other two sections though. It talks about how he’s done trials of more than 6,000 people. He talks about his feelings during the numerous trials. He also talks about how his patients felt and some direct quotes from them as well as people of higher rank than Jenner.

VIII. References

• Jenner, E. (1798). The three original publications on vaccination against smallpox. Harvard Classics, 38(4), Retrieved from http://www.bartleby.com/38/4/

                                               

• Adler, R. E. (2004). Medical Firsts: From Hippocrates to the Human Genome. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Retrieved October 14, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questiaschool.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107370949

• Zubay, G. (2005). Agents of Bioterrorism: Pathogens and Their Weaponization. New York: Columbia University Press. Retrieved October 14, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questiaschool.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=111721807

• worcesterjonny, Initials (Director). (2009, February, 24). Edward Jenner-smallpox vaccine [Television series episode]. (Executive producer), YouTube.

• Invent Now-Hall of Fame, Initials. (2000). Benjamin a. Rubin. Retrieved from http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/125.html

• Inventor of the Week Archive, Initials. (2001, March). Inventor of the week archive. Retrieved from http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/rubin.html