Airbags by Kelly Riebesell

           Introduction
               For years the seat belt was the sole devise in cars to protect you in a collision.  In the 1980's the first commercial airbags were sold in cars; by 1988, all cars sold in the United States were required to have airbags in the driver and passenger sides. Airbags are safety devices in automobiles built into the dashboard, steering wheel, door, roof, or seat of your car.   They are made up of a flexible envelope which use crash sensors to trigger an automatic expansion in order to protect you from the impact of an accident.
            Discovery

            Airbags for automobiles were introduced to the United States in the 1970's because of the concern of the low usage rates of seat belts. The airbag is based on the laws of motion.  Moving objects have momentum.  Unless an outside force acts on the object, they will continue to go at its constant speed and direction. A car consists of many objects; there are loose objects in the car and, of course, the passengers.  If not restrained, these objects will continue at the same speed of the car, even if there is a collision.  Therefore something needs to instantly restrain the passengers and objects from moving foward if a collision or accident occurs. When a car crashes, the force required to stop a passenger is very great because the cars momentum has changed instantly, while the person's has not.  The airbag has a strong enough force to stop a passenger, however, is very unlikely to harm them.

 http://www.mongreled.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Safety-Airbags.jpg

           Biography of Inventor
            John W. Hetrick came up with the idea of the inflated cushion through his experience with the use of compressed air in torpedoes when he was involved in the United States Navy.  In 1968, Allen K. Breed was inspired by his idea to invent the airbags, now used in all United States automobiles.  Breed's invention was the world's first electromechanical automotive air bag system. In 1987 Breed founded Breed Automotive to refine and market his airbag invention.  The air bag is only one of two dozen auto safety inventions he has co-patented over the years.
           Impact on the World/ Humanity

           Air bags have had a major impact on the world and humanity in the way they have protected many possible deaths and major injuries.  The seat belt is also a major restraint device, however, people have a choice not to wear their seat belts.  And the rates of seat belt usage has gone down over the years. The air bag is something that is automatically triggered by a collision and is an added protection to the seat belt; especially if a passenger is not wearing their seat belt.
            Journal Article Review
            This journal article displays the facts that airbags reduce drivers deaths by about 14 percent and passenger deaths by about 11 percent.  It also states that airbags and seat belt work together as a system; it is much safer to have an airbag and a seat belt on than just one or the other. Deaths are 12 percent lower among drivers with belts alone and 9 percent lower among passengers with belts alone.
            List of References

• Airbags. (n.d.). The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia Research Institute. Retrieved May 1, 2011, from http://www.research.chop.edu/programs/carseat/airbags.php
• Bellis, M. (n.d.). The History of Airbags. Inventors. Retrieved May 1, 2011, from http://inventors.about.com/od/astartinventions/a/air_bags.htm
• Brain, M. (n.d.). HowStuffWorks "How Airbags Work". Howstuffworks "Auto ". Retrieved May 1, 2011, from http://auto.howstuffworks.com/car-driving-safety/safety-regulatory-devices/airbag.htm
• Inventor of the Week: Archive. (n.d.). MIT. Retrieved May 1, 2011, from http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/breed.html

FIGURE 1- SACCHARIN

Saccharin

By: Ali Hunt

I. Introduction:

Saccharin was founded by accident in 1879 by Constantin Fahlberg, a researcher working with coal tar. Now, saccharin is used as an artificial sweetener in the Sweet & Low brand. Sac

charin is considered a sulfimide. The hydrogen atom on the nitrogen atom forms salt (which can bond with other atoms to from a sugar-like taste).

II. Discovery:

Saccharin was founded by accident. In 1879 Constantin Fahlberg went home to eat dinner after not washing his hands at a day at work (working with coal tar). He proceeded to go home and eat some rolls,which he realized tasted really sweet because of the chemicals on his hands. He asked his wife if her rolls were especially sweet, and she said no. He then realized that the chemicals from the coal tar (sulfimide) could be used to acquire a swee

t taste. Saccharin is important to diabetics because it can go through the digestive system without being digested. Uses of saccharin became especially popular during food shortages in the World Wars.

III. Biography of Discoverer:

Constantin Fahlberg was born on December 22nd, 1850, in Tambov, Russia. He worked at the John Hopkins University as a research analyst for coal tar. He worked for professor Ira Remsen. There is controversy of the discovery. After the discovery of saccharin, Fahlberg earned a lot of money. Remsen grew angry at Fahlberg, wanting credit for the discovery of the chemical compound. The work on discovering saccharin was published together, but it has been quoted that Remsen has called Fahlberg “despicable” and “hearing his name is sickness-inducing”. Both accounts of the discovery were different, and Remsen later become the president of John Hopkins University.

IV. Saccharin & The World:

Saccharin fuels the growing controversy about today’s media. Everyone constantly wants to be thinner in a society where fast food and processed food is everywhere. It has been said the saccharin made rats more susceptible to brain cancer, but there is no concrete proof that is causes cancer in humans. Saccharin can trigger allergic reactions, but this claim isn’t supported by evidence. Saccharin is said to have a metallic aftertaste if used in large quantities with a high concentration. On the positive side, Saccharin allows one to consume tea, coke, cake, cookies, etc, without the caloric effe

cts of a normal sugar. In America, where the obesity rate is ridiculous, Saccharin allows one to lead a healthier life. Saccharin has a long shelf life. Finally, Saccharin is useful to diabetics because the compound is not broken down in the digestive system and doesn’t have the same effect on a diabetic system that regular sugar does.

V. Journal Article:

A Moment-by-Moment Comparsion of Sucrose and Saccharin Drinking by the Rat

James C. Smith, Laura Wilson, Robin Krimm and Dana Merryday

This journal article showed the results of rats drinking water, sucrose, and saccharin. The results showed that when giving all three, the rats drank more sucrose than saccharin or water. The regular sugar was more addictive than the artificial sugar. However, when feeing afterwords, rats that drank saccharin ate more than rats that were given water or sucrose. So, the saccharin made the rats hungrier.

VI. References

Smith, J, Wilson, L, Krimm, R, & Merryday, D. (1986, July 1). A moment-by-moment comparsion of

FIGURE 2-Sweet &Low Packet

sucrose and saccharin drinking by the rat. Retrieved from http://chemse.oxfordjournals.org/content/12/1/99.short (journal article)

Tulika, N. (n.d.). Saccharin side effects. Retrieved from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/saccharin-side-effects.html

Walters, D. (n.d.). Sweetener saccharin. Retrieved from http://www.rosalindfranklin.edu/DNN/home/CMS/biochem/Faculty/Walters/Sweeteners/

http://www.tradekorea.com/ (figure 1)

http://www.toptenz.net (figure 2)

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles by Gus Joseph

Figure 1

The Predator UAV

Intro

All throughout the history of war, reconnaissance and information gathering have been some of the most influential factors. It’s usually safe to say that whoever has the most information on their enemy will come out on top because of their ability to be one step ahead of their opponent. Unfortunately, until recently, gathering information was very dangerous job. Because of this, modern scientists and engineers have recently developed Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, or UAV, which are capable of both stealthy reconnaissance and combat, all without human passengers.

The History of the UAV

There have been many attempts at creating unmanned aerial vehicles in the past. The first UAVs were, simply enough, balloons. In the Civil War, the North attempted to put incendiary devices in the bottom of balloons, which were then sent to the Southern side of the battlefield, in an attempt to start fires. The balloons had timed fuses, which would release the flaming weapons after a set amount of time. Unfortunately for the North, the wind was unpredictable and the balloons didn’t work very well. Another example of balloons being used to drop bombs is the Japanese in 1944, where they attempted to start forest fires in America with balloons with incendiary cargo, but didn’t work either. The only semi-successful balloon UAV was the United State’s “Project Gopher” weather balloon, which was used to get images of the Soviet Union for the US Military. All in all, the balloons UAVs were mostly failures, but they laid the foundation for the UAVs that are used today. There had also been attempts at attaching cameras to kites to try and take pictures, which worked out decently, but the pictures were blurry and unhelpful.

The Modern UAV

Since the balloon, UAVs have evolved into modern marvels. They come in all shapes and sizes, with some having wingspans from 86 feet such as “The Eitan”, as well as the miniscule 6-inch wingspan on the “Black Widow”. UAVs are used for capturing images and videos for soldiers in Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as used for combat. The combat drones are equip with guns and missiles that can be fired remotely from anywhere VIA satellite. This is very useful for both finding and eliminating enemies without needing to risk soldiers’ lives. The UAV is also starting to be used for controlling the border and also to help locate people after a natural disaster. They help by looking for survivors amongst the debris where it would be dangerous for a human to be. The applications for UAVs are endless.

Figure 2

The Black Widow UAV

Impact on the World

The UAV has definitely changed war for the better. By being able to remove real humans from dangerous situations, countless soldiers have been kept safe.

Also, with the use of the UAVs in disaster relief, even more lives have been saved because of these machines. With new uses being discovered often, the UAV is a very useful invention.

Journal Article

Vision for a UAV helicopter

This journal goes in depth about the different cameras used on various UAV helicopters. The cameras used in UAVs have three different levels of software. They have a deliberate system at top, which is devoted to mission planning and mission tasks. The second level is the reactive level, and the third level of software is the processing layer, which contains the image-processing module. This level is responsible for interpreting the images that the camera captures. It also contains operational scenarios, which allow the UAV to react to certain events taking place in its line of sight, such as a car stopping and going. The UAV then can react accordingly to the scenario. The UAV also takes it’s height and speed into consideration when capturing video, and can adjust the recording accordingly.

Works Cited

McGuigan, Brandon. (n.d.). What are uavs?. Retrieved from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-uavs.htm

A short history of unmanned aerial vehicles (uavs). (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.draganfly.com/news/2009/03/04/a-short-history-of-unmanned-aerial-vehicles-uavs/

New uses for uavs. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.erau.edu/research/strata_pdf/strata_spring06.pdf

Unmanned aerial vehicles: an overview. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.insidegnss.com/auto/janfeb08-wp.pdf

Nordberg, Klas, Doherty, Patrick, Farneback, Gunnar, Forssen, Per-Erik, & Granlund, Gosta. Vision for a uav helicopter

Ice Cream by: Lisa Dunleavy

I. Introduction

I scream you scream we all scream for ICE CREAM! Americans spend an average of 20 billion dollars on ice cream every year, about 1.6 billion gallons of ice cream or 48 pints per person (“Ice Cream,” n.d.)! Most of us indulge in this delectable treat, but where was this delicious treat invented and how is it made? Let’s find out!

II. Discovery

Despite the copious spending of Americans on ice cream, ice cream was not invented in the United States; it’s unknown where it originated. One of the first commonly known documented signs that there was such a thing as ice cream dates back to the Roman Emperor Nero (A.D. 37- 68) who ordered his servants to get ice from the mountains and add fruit toppings to it. Later, King Tang from China (A.D. 618-697) added milk to the ice (Bellis, n.d.).

III. Important Dates (“Ice Cream,” n.d. and Bellis, n.d.)

1660s: ‘Water ices” becomes a new treat in Europe.

1843: Nancy Johnson invented an ice cream machine where one was able to turn a crank to stir the ingredients rather than by hand.

1850s: Jacob Fussell opened the first ice cream store in America.

1880s: Sundaes came into play.

1904: Ernest Hamwi invented the first ice cream cone at World’s Fair in St. Louis, Missouri.

1919: Christian Nelson a Danish immigrant invented the I-Scream Bar in Iowa.

1920: Harry Burt invented the Good Humor Ice Cream Bar.

1934: Thomas Carvelas invented a freezer that made soft “Carvel” ice cream.

1960: Reuben Mattus invented Haagen-Dazs.

III. Making of Ice Cream

Ice cream is made of: 55-64% water from milk, more than 10% milkfat, between 9-12% milk solids (not fat), 12-16% sweeteners, and .2-.5% stabilizers and emulsifiers. The fat makes the flavor rich and makes the texture of the ice cream. The structure of the fat in ice cream is shown in figure 1. The sugars make it sweet but they also make ice cream have a depressed freezing point (lower freezing point than just a pure solvent). This makes sure that the water isn’t completely frozen so you can scoop it (Goff, n.d.).

Figure 1: The Structure of Fat in Ice Cream

Freezing point depression has to do with the dissolving of molecules. The property of freezing point depression is that the lower the molecular weight, the more ability the molecule has to depress the freezing point. So, monosaccharides (A sugar that can’t be made simpler) like fructose or glucose make a softer ice cream than disaccharides (A sugar that is made of two monosaccharides) like sucrose.

Stabilizers (usually polysaccharides) prevent the breakdown of emulsions and add viscosity (thickness) to the unfrozen water making sure that the water doesn’t move to other parts of the ice cream.

Emulsifiers stabilize an emulsion (A small dispersion of a liquid in another liquid that is not soluble or miscible) and they help develop the fat structure and air distribution of ice cream. Ice cream is an emulsion and a foam, a gas dissolved in a liquid (Goff, n.d.).

Now, here is a video on how you can make your own ice cream at home!

Video 1: How to make Ice Cream at Home

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M3-OAwhIvU0

IV. Impact on the world

Ice cream has made a huge impact on the world today, most people can’t imagine living without it! The impact that it has made is shown in the statistics stated in the introduction.

V. Journal Article: Inhibition of Ice Crystal Growth in Ice Cream Mix by Gelatin Hydrolysate

This journal article talks about peptides molecular weight in comparison with the highest rate of growth of ice crystals. For example, in an experiment it was shown that hydrolysate (A substance produced by hydrolysis- when water is added to break a polymer apart) fraction with peptides of a molecular weight between 2000-5000 Da (Deca) had the highest activity of crystal growth. Whereas, the hydrolysate fraction with peptides that measured more than 7000 Da did not form ice crystals. It also does a similar experiment with gelatin and talks about energy given off (Damodaran, 2007).

VI. Fun Facts- (“Fun Facts,” n.d.)

12 pounds of milk are needed to produce only one gallon of ice cream.

It’s calculated that it takes about 50 licks to finish a single-scoop ice cream cone.

The largest ice cream sundae weighed more than 24 tons and was made in Alberta, Canada.

In the year 2003, the city Portland, Oregon bought more ice cream per person than any other city in the United States.

VII. Biography

Bellis, Mary. (n.d.). History of ice cream. Retrieved from http://inventors.about.com/od/foodrelatedinventions/a/ice_cream.htm

Damodaran, S. (2007). Inhibition of ice crystal growth in ice cream mix by gelatin hydrolysate. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Retrieved from http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf0724670 doi: 10.1021/jf0724670

Fun facts. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.icecream.com/funfacts/index.asp?b=105

Goff, D. (n.d.). Finding science in ice cream - an experiment for secondary school classrooms. Retrieved from http://www.foodscience.uoguelph.ca/dairyedu/findsci.html

Ice cream. (n.d.). Retrieved from National Geographic: http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngexplorer/0304/articles/mainarticle.html

VIII. Image

Goff, D. (n.d.). Structure of ice cream. Retrieved from http://www.foodscience.uoguelph.ca/dairyedu/icstructure.html

VIII. Video

Howcast, . (2009, June). How to make homemade ice cream in a plastic bag. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M3-OAwhIvU0