Iris Recognition: By Jennifer Grigsby

Figure 1

I. Introduction

Iris recognition is a type of biometrics that recognizes a person by analyzing the random patterns of their iris. The iris is the colored part of the eye: an internal organ (muscle) in the eye that regulates the size of the pupil, controlling how much light gets in. The coloration and structure of an iris are genetically linked, but the detailed patterns are not. Two irides can be genetically identical, but everybody’s has a different structure.

HOW IT WORKS

Before the actual iris recognition can happen, several steps need to take place: location of the iris using landmark features, imaging, feature isolation, and extracting. Modern iris cameras use infrared light for the iris scan so it doesn’t harm the subject or make them uncomfortable. During imaging, a 2D Gabor wavelet filters and maps the segments of the iris into phasors (vectors). The phasors include information on the orientation, spatial frequency, and position. This info is used to map the IrisCode. An IrisCode describes iris patterns by using phase information collected in the phasors. Two IrisCodes are compared to perform the iris recognition. Hamming Distance (HD) is used to measure how closely the two match up statistically. If the HD is under a certain number, then the two IrisCodes are from the same iris. So for iris recognition to match up two irides, it has to fail a test of statistical significance (the HD has to be too low to be significant).

Figure 2: a localized iris

II. Discovery (Timeline)

1936: Frank Burch (ophthamologist) proposed concept of using iris patterns to recognize people

1985: Drs. Leonard Flow and Aran Safir proposed the concept that no two irides are the same

1987: Iris identification patented

1993: Defense Nuclear agency began testing to develop a prototype unit (completed in 1995 by Flom, Safir, and Dr. John Daugman)

1994: Daugman’s algorithms for automated iris recognition were patented

1995: first commercial products available

2005: broad patent for the concept of iris recognition expired, enabling other companies to use their own algorithms to make iris recognition devices

Patent on IrisCodes (developed by Daugman) expires in 2011

III. Biography of Investigator

Dr. John G. Daugman teaches neural computing, information theory, and computer vision classes at University of Cambridge. He is best known for developing IrisCode, the algorithm for iris recognition. After earning his B.A. and PhD degrees at Harvard University, he taught there. He co-founded Iridian Technologies, and is also a board member. Awards that Daugman has received include the following: the Presidential Young Investigator Award of the National Science Foundation, the Information Technology Award and Medal of the British Computer Society, and the Order of the British Empire from Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II.

Figure 3: an example of an IrisCode

IV. Impact on the World/Humanity

It is a convenient means of access (especially for disabled people) because it’s fast, automatic, hands-free, and reliable. The majority of identification today is done by showing documentation like passports or ID cards, or entering a password, but fraud is pretty much unavoidable with methods like these. When iris recognition is configured and used properly, there’s no room for error in terms of identifying the wrong person.

IRIS RECOGNITION IN ACTION

Figure 4

- United Arab Emirates Homeland Security Border Control

- Schiphole Airport, Netherlands (passport-free immigration)

- United Kingdom: IRIS (Iris Recognition Immigration System)

- A number of U.S. and Canadian airports

- Google (uses it to access to their datacenters)

- and much more!

Figure 5: The IriScan model 2100 is a device that scans irides

V. Journal Article Review

As of January 2004, when this journal article was written, iris recognition had been tested several million times without producing any false matches. The phase information gathered by phasors is so complex and particular that identification can be made very confidently. An advantage of iris recognition over other types of biometrics is its ability to be used in “identification mode”, meaning an entire database can be searched and come up with the result, versus “verification” in which one individual is compared to another and either passes or fails (many comparisons versus few comparisons).

VI. References

Daugman, J. (n.d.). Iris Recognition. The International Center for Disability Resources on the Internet. Retrieved May 1, 2011, from http://www.icdri.org/biometrics/iris_biometrics.htm

Iris Recognition. (2006, August 7). National Science and Technology Council, Subcommittee on Biometrics. Retrieved May 1, 2011, from www.biometrics.gov/Documents/irisrec.pdf

John Daugman. (n.d.). American Scientist Online. Retrieved May 1, 2011, from http://www.americanscientist.org/authors/detail/john-daugman

Pictures:

Daugman., J. (n.d.). Iris recognition. The Computer Laboratory. Retrieved May 1, 2011, from http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~jgd1000/iris_recognition.html

Examples of IrisCodes. (n.d.). The Computer Laboratory. Retrieved May 1, 2011, from http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~jgd1000/examples.html

File:IriScan model 2100 iris scanner 1.jpg - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (n.d.). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved May 1, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IriScan_model_2100_iris_scanner_1.jpg

Journal Article:

Daugman, J. (n.d.). IEEE Xplore - How iris recognition works. IEEE Xplore - Home. Retrieved May 1, 2011, from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=1262028

Taste Buds

Taste Buds by Elizabeth Feins

I. Intro

Fig. 1: The Five Senses

Of the five senses, taste is often the most overlooked (look—in Fig. 1, it’s the last one listed!). Historically, it’s the most mysterious sense, as well as the sensation we use least often. When we’re taking a walk in the park, for example, we can see the trees, hear the birds, feel the breeze, and smell the barbecue going on in a neighbor’s backyard—but we don’t taste anything. It seems to be the least important sense. In actuality, however, taste plays a huge role in the daily lives of humans. Our sense of taste affects the foods we choose to eat, and, consequentially, our lifestyle.

II. Background

Fig 2: Diagram of a Taste Bud

Taste buds are small bumps that coat the tongue, soft palate, epiglottis, and, according to recent studies, the lungs. Each bump contains a cluster of taste cells (as seen in Fig. 2), which enable humans to taste the foods they eat. Taste buds have the ability to detect chemical messages in food, and then translate the messages into electrical signals called action potentials. The action potentials then travel via nerve fibers to the brain, which translates them into the tastes we experience daily. Taste buds are considered chemoreceptors—sense organs that respond to a chemical stimulus. Some chemoreceptors, such as the organs that sense smells, do not need to make direct contact with chemicals; taste buds, however, must physically touch the chemical in order to send the message to the brain.

Taste buds can recognize five distinct tastes: salty, sweet, bitter, sour, and umami (“savory”). Rotten foods tend to taste bitter or sour, while nutritious, high-calorie foods trigger the other three tastes; because of this, humans have evolved to prefer salty, sweet, and savory flavors over bitter or sour.

Fig. 3: An Outdated “Tongue Map”

In the past, scientists believed each region of the tongue could sense a specific taste (Fig. 3). This theory has since been disproven; any taste bud can detect any flavor using ion channels. Salty foods, for example, contain sodium chloride. Each molecule of sodium chloride contains one positively charged sodium ion and one negatively charged chlorine ion. The sodium ions affect the electrical charge of the taste bud cells. Similarly, sour foods contain acids, which are made up of positively charged hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions affect the taste buds differently than the sodium ions. Bitter, sweet, and savory flavors are sensed in a parallel manner using proteins instead of ions.

III. Biography of Investigator

Fig. 3: Marcello Malpighi, Discoverer of Taste Buds

Born in 1628, Marcello Malpighi was an Italian physician and biologist who studied the anatomy using microscopes. As the first scientist to employ microscopes to analyze physical composition of humans, Malpighi is considered the “Father of Histology” (the microscopic study of tissues). He helped change many outdated concepts of medicine and biology—his discovery of the capillary demonstrated that blood moved between veins and arteries, proving the existence of the circulatory system. He also also studied microscopic subdivisions of organs such as the liver, spleen, kidneys, bones, and the deeper layer of the skin that is now named after him: the Malpighian layer.

In 1662, Malpighi became a professor of medicine at the University of Messina in Sicily. During this period, he discovered the minute structures of the brain and optic nerve, in addition to identifying taste buds. However, Malphighi’s work was very controversial; in 1684 his home was burned, his microscopes shattered, and his research papers destroyed. In spite of this, Malpighi was invited to be the personal physician for Pope Innocent XII. He held this position until his death in 1694.

IV. Impact on Humanity

Restaurants add extra salt to stimulate taste buds.

Taste buds greatly impact humanity. Each human has individual taste preferences, but for the most part, people tend to prefer sweet, salty, and savory over bitter and sour. Food manufacturers take this into consideration when creating new recopies; restaurants such as McDonald’s incorporate extra salt into their trademark French fries in order to stimulate the taste buds and keep customers coming back for more.

Recent studies regarding taste include the discovery of taste buds lining the walls of the lungs. These taste buds respond to bitter tastes by expanding the airways significantly. This new information could lead to new asthma treatments.

V. Journal Article Review: Making Sense of Taste

The article follows the history of human knowledge of taste buds. Beginning in the 1940s, scientists have done tests on taste cells, trying to determine how they communicated with the brain. Up until recently, it was thought that each region of the tongue could only experience one flavor. For example, the taste buds at the tip of the tongue could supposedly only detect sweetness; everything else would seem tasteless. Similarly, the back of the tongue would only react to bitter tastes. However, later discoveries showed that the same taste bud could detect more than one flavor—it simply reacted more strongly to one flavor in particular.

Works Cited

Foster, Niki. "How Do Taste Buds Work?." wiseGEEK: clear answers for common questions. Bronwyn Harris, n.d. Web. 1 May 2011. .

"Marcello Malpighi Summary BookRags.com." BookRags.com Study Guides, Lesson Plans, Book Summaries and more. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 May 2011. .

McMaster, Nick. " Your Lungs Have Their Own Taste Buds - Scientists find bitter tastes open airways, could treat asthma." Newser Headline News Summaries, World News, Breaking News, and Local News. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 May 2011. .

Smith, David , and Robert Margolskee. "Making Sense of Taste." Making Sense of Taste. N.p., 18 Mar. 2001. Web. 1 May 2011.

The Electric Cigarette

by: Shelby Carbary
Intro:
Since around the later portion of the 1950’s people started to realize that the tobacco in cigarettes cause major health problems. As research progressed smoking become less and less popular due to the number of people being diagnosed with lung cancer, emphysema, and other smoking related diseases. Unfortunately the nicotine in the tobacco is extremely addictive and very hard to stop using. In 2003, Chinese pharmacist Hon Lik, invented the electronic cigarette as a safer and cleaner way to inhale nicotine, after his father passed due to heavy smoking.
Discovery:
The vapor smoke created by the electronic cigarette when “vaped” is normally created by the addition of propylene glycol (PG) to the e juice contained in the e cig cartridge. Some manufacturers also produce e liquid that has vegetable glycerin in the cartridge instead of PG to lessen allergic reactions experienced by some users of vapor smokes. Most e liquid comes in a variety of nicotine strengths and flavors to include traditional tobacco, menthol, coffee, chocolate, and various fruit flavors. Leaving a controversy of whether or not these appeal to adolescence. There is also an e liquid that contains no nicotine at all. People who have a problem not with being addicted to nicotine, but the motion and constant use of a cigarette will use these e liquids so they still can continue that habit of smoking with out the harmful side effects. Researchers have also found evidence that smoking an e cig reduces cravings among smokers not just for nicotine but also for the need to hold something in there hands and put something in their mouths, making them more appealing than a patch or gum. Electronic cigarettes come in two, three, and four piece designs. For models that are designed in three or more pieces, the e cig atomizer is a separate component of the electronic cigarette and has to be removed for cleaning after use so that it can operate within specifications to vaporize the e liquid contained in the e cig cartridge to create vapor smoke. Some people made the switch because of a recent addition of a certain glue in a cigarette that was extremely harmful. Also an e cig is reusable and you only have to carry around one cigarette instead, and also e cigs are even allowed in restaurants making it extremely convenient for heavy smokers. Despite the belief that electronic cigarettes are one hundred percent better for you, the reality is that there just isn’t enough research yet to really know for sure.
Discoverer:
Hon Lik was basically the first person to introduce the e cig. He had they idea after his father died of a smoking related disease and wanted to change his excessive smoking habits. In 2003, Hon got his first patent on the e cigarette and introduced it to the Chinese market in 2004,through his employer Golden Dragon Holdings. Golden Dragon Holdings later changed the company name to “Ruyan” in order to better match the company’s name (Ruyan means “almost like smoke”) to the new product. Since the renaming, the Ruyan company has continued e cigarette development and has grown to be one of the largest global e cig manufacturers. Dr. Sam Han, CEO of Cixi E-CIG Technology, Inc. Ltd. Is also attributed with a number of e cig related inventions to include four patents in the United States and two in China that are electronic cigarette and e-liquid technology related. Similar to Hon Lik, Dr Han was a heavy smoker for more than 40 years before beginning work on electronic cigarette technologies in order to help himself and others make the shift to vapor smoking. Dr. Han continues to market and conduct R&D in e cig related technologies to this date. After the successful deployment of the Ruyan and Cixi E-CIG electronic cigarettes in China and Asia, the products started to be sold in significant quantities on the Internet. UK businessman, Greg Carson, is attributed with being the first to “westernize” the e cig product relabeled as the “Electro Fag.” The product gained such popularity in the UK and Europe, that British parliament passed legislation legalizing the use of e cigs indoors and in other places that traditional smoking has become banned. Since the gain in popularity in Europe, the electronic cigarette has been introduced to the American market through a variety of distributors to include GreenSmoke, Cigana, ePuffer, and Blu e cig companies with no one individual being credited for bringing the product to the United States.
Impact on Humanity:
For many years people have been affected by smoking related diseases. But for many people its not easy to just up and quit cold turkey. The e cig gives people a way to smoke with out inhaling many of the other harmful substances found in tobacco because the e cigs contain no tobacco, only nicotine. The e cig also offers no added chemicals like glue or tar that are sometimes found in a real cigarette. Many people find the e cig more appealing compared to nicotine patches or nicotine gum because it not only gets rid of the cravings it satisfies the comfort some people get from physically having a cigarette in their mouth or hands. Now people have a safer and cleaner way to get their nicotine fix and have less risk of being diagnosed with a smoking related diseases. The only thing that is wrong with the e cig is that their still isn’t enough research stating anything that could be potentially harmful in the e cig because of how new it is. So really only time can tell if it really makes a dramatic difference.
Journal Article:
Use of Electronic Cigarettes in Smoking Cessation Programs

This article is examining whether or not e cigs are really helpful with smoking cessation. E-cigarettes are non-flammable devices that deliver synthetic or tobacco-derived nicotine; they are similar in size, shape, and usage to a normal cigarette. They are available worldwide through the Internet or in retail outlets. Little independent research has been conducted into their ingredients and health impacts, but they are promoted by vendors and some health harm reduction advocates as a safe alternative to cigarettes, and in some instances, aids for quitting smoking or for cutting down smoking for those who done want to quit. However, manufacturers of e-cigarettes have not submitted the applications for FDA approval of these products for smoking cessation. While e cigarettes help give you the nicotine fix, the vapor released contains polyethylene glycol (PG), which looks like cigarette smoke (also used for fog machines and theatrical smoke) and is also an FDA-approved food additive commonly found in deodorants, moisturizing lotions, toothpastes; pharmaceutical products, including some inhalers; and fat-free dairy products. Because E-cigarettes have not been thoroughly tested, you cannot conclude that they do not produce any harmful products, even if they produce fewer dangerous substances than normal cigarettes. In fact, analysis of two brands of e-cigarettes found detectable levels of known carcinogens and toxic chemicals (i.e., diethylene glycol, an ingredient used in antifreeze, small amounts of tobacco-specific nitrosamines, and certain other tobacco-specific impurities that may be harmful). Most research on e-cigarette ingredients, safety, health effects, and use by current smokers has been funded by manufacturers. Independent studies by the FDA and Demokritas, a publicly funded research institute based in Greece, raised questions about the actual ingredients found in commercial e-cigarettes, consistency of nicotine levels, and quality control in their manufacture. Whether the FDA will have regulatory control, and over which aspects, remains to be determined.
Resources:
http://www.whoinventedit.net/who-invented-the-electronic-cigarette.html
http://articles.latimes.com/2009/apr/25/world/fg-china-cigarettes25
http://news.discovery.com/human/e-cigarettes-health-nicotine-tobacco-110127.html
http://www.ama-assn.org/resources/doc/csaph/a10csaph6ft.pdf

Neon Lighting

By: William Luer

INTRODUCTION

Neon Lighting was unveiled at The Paris Motor Show on December 3, 1910 by a man named Georges Claude. Georges Claude was an influential French engineer and inventor who was considered by many to be the “Edison of France.” Nowadays, neon lighting is everywhere. It would be difficult to go out at night and not see any of the brightly colored lights that havecome to fill up almost every square inch of our society.

DISCOVERY/INVENTION

Neon lights work by heating the element neon within an enclosed container. The lights of which are commonly seen around cities are made possible by filling glass tubes with neon and exciting the gas with an electrode positioned at one end of the tube. With the flick of a switch, the electrode is turned on and begins to heat up the neon. When the gas becomes heated to a certain point, it gives off a certain brightness that has come to be associated with neon.

Besides neon, there are other types of lights and light bulbs such as fluorescent and iridescent lights. Fluorescent light bulbs work nearly the same as neon light bulbs.

The main difference between the two is the kind of gas that is used. Fluorescent bulbs use about a drop of Mercury gas inside of a vacuum. However the light given off by mercury is outside the visible light spectrum, therefore causing it to be invisible to the human eye. Manufacturers overcome this by painting phosphors on the outside of the bulb. Upon being hit by the invisible mercurial light, phosphors give off a white glow which allow for humans to see the light. Incandescent lights work differently than the previously mentioned bulbs. Instead of heating a gas, incandescent bulbs work by heating a tungsten filament to about 4500o F where it begins to glow.

A mistake commonly made by people is that they assume that all brightly colored lights are neon lights. In fact, most “neon” lights are not neon at all. For example, “neon” blue lights are actually filled with a very high concentration of mercury gas, yellow lights are filled with sodium gas, gold lights are filled with helium, and whites are made of carbon dioxide. There are over 150 different colors that can be made and despite the different gases used, the technology is identical.

BIOGRAPHY

Georges Claude was born on September 24, 1870 in Paris, France. After graduating from school, he held several job positions. He worked as an electrical inspector in a cable factory, the laboratory manager in an electric works as well as f

ounding his own magazine, The Electric Spark. In 1902, Claude invented a system for liquefying large quantities of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, which is now known creatively as the Claude system for liquefying air.
Georges Claude had interesting views on how the government of France should be run. He thought that democracy was futile and he was part of a group that promoted the restoration of a monarchy to France. During World War II, Claude publically supported France’s collaboration with Germany. However, when the Allies liberated France in 1944, Claude was taken into custody, stripped of his rank at the French Academy of Sciences, and condemned to life in prison. He only spent 6 years in prison before being released and ten years after that, on May 23, 1960, Claude passed away in Saint-Cloud, France.

IMPACT ON WORLD

A world without neon lights would be hard to imagine. The wide-ranging impacts of neon lights have affected many aspects of society such as business, nightlife, flying, and communication. Throughout the early 1930s Claude and his U.S. company, Claude Neon Lights, held one of the largest monopolies of the time because they held the patent for the electrode.

Nowadays, if a company does not promote its business with large, obtrusive neon lights, it is assumed that they are shut down or closed. The whole concept of outdoor advertising has become an art form. Take a look at Times Square or Las Vegas for example, the buildings are bursting with colors which make the cities all the more exciting and enjoyable. Neon lights are also used for communication in airplanes and helicopters because the light given off by neon can be seen from distances much farther than other light bulbs. Pilots have even reported seeing neon lights from over 20 miles away.

The largest neon sign in the United States belongs to the Jack Rabbit Beans

Company in Saginaw, Michigan. The sign reads “BEANS” and stands 35 feet tall and stretches for over 50 feet.

JOURNAL ARTICLE

The Journal Article I read outlines an experiment done to evaluate the effect of neon lights and the growth of rabbit hair. There were 45 rabbits in this experiment who were split into three groups of 15. Each group in this experiment was exposed to one of three situations. The first is strictly neon light, the second is complete darkness, and the third being of diffused, filtered sunlight.
In this experiment, the 45 rabbits were all shaved at corresponding areas of their body and put into three groups inside of their testing habitat. They were evaluated every week for 23 weeks and at the end, the scientists were able to come to the conclusion that the conditions “affected the proliferative activity of hair follicles in a manner and to an extent comparable with the effects produced by the same environmental conditions on the growth and nutrition of the animals themselves.”

LIST OF REFERENCES

Brown, W.H. (1928). Influence of light environment on the growth of hair in normal rabbits with especial reference to the action of neon light. . Retrieved from http://jem.rupress.org/content/48/1/57.full.pdf+html

How does a neon sign work. Retrieved from http://www.bigsiteofamazingfacts.com/how-does-a-neon-sign-wor

Peachtron, . (2008, April 23). How do neon signs work?. Retrieved from http://hubpages.com/hub/How-Do-Neon-Signs-Work

Perlman, I. (n.d.). Georges claude biography. Retrieved from http://www.bookrags.com/biography/georges-claude-woi/

Wagner, R. (n.d.). History of neon signs. Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com/facts_4899681_history-neon-signs.html

What's the difference between neon lights and fluorescent lights?. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.bigsiteofamazingfacts.com/whats-the-difference-between-neon-lights-and-fluorescent-lights

The Microscope
By Carter Moore

Introduction:

The microscope was developed in the late 16th century in England. The microscope was most likely discovered by inverting a telescope. One of the first microscopes was six feet tall and only had one lens at the end. Even though in the today’s world this sounds rather elementary, in its time it was a huge advancement in the field of science.
History:

In about 1597 two Dutch eyeglass makers, Zaccharias Janssen and his son Hans were experimenting with lenses in a tube. They observed that nearby objects viewed through two lenses lined up were magnified. Their device was the first compound microscope. However, their lenses were too big and the magnification power was only about 10X. Galileo also designed a compound microscope, but it was only useful for reflected light. Robert Hooke built the first useable British compound microscope in about 1655. The single lens microscopes made by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek were much better than the early compound microscopes.

Biography:

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch microscope maker that had little to no formal scientific education. Although he didn’t have a formal scientific education he confirmed and further developed the discovery by Marcello Malpighi regarding the pulmonary capillaries, demonstrating how the red corpuscles circulated through the capillaries of a rabbit's ear and the web of a frog's foot. In 1676, he observed and described for the first time what he called animalcules known today as protozoa and bacteria in pond water, rainwater, in human saliva. In 1677, he described the spermatozoa of both insects and humans. Leeuwenhoek also made a lens that could magnify an object by 270 times which far exceeded the magnification power of the microscopes which preceded it which that could only magnify an object by about 20 times. This allowed Leeuwenhoek and his predecessors the privilege of launching the human race into the marvels of today’s modern medical capabilities.
Journal article:

http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/1995/FT/ft9959100719

This article show that Copper hydride decomposes to metallic copper and hydrogen gas when exposed to the electron beam within a transmission electron microscope. This article also shows that exposure to ammonia vapor causes fragmentation and reconstruction of the particles.

Impact on the world:

Prior to the invention of the microscope, people did not realize there were living things too small to see with the naked eye like bacteria and protozoa. The discovery of microorganisms revolutionized the world of biology and medicine.
Bibliography:

Antony van Leeuwenhoek. (n.d.). UCMP - University of California Museum of Paleontology. Retrieved April 27, 2011, from

The Microscope. (n.d.). Microscope. Retrieved April 25, 2011, from campus.udayton.edu/~hume/Microscope/microscope.html

Electric Fences

I. INTRODUCTION

I used to ride horses at a barn that had electric fences to enclose their pastures. I soon learned that half the time they didn't even need to be on and the horses still went no where near the fences. I realized that was a very efficient way to keep the horses confined. While I was talking to one of my class mates about which invention to choose he mentioned the invisible fence which made me think of the electric fence. So, lets see what I learned!

II. DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRIC FENCE

1870: 1st spoken of in "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" (Jules Vernes) as a defensive weapon.

1889: Next described in "A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court" (Mark Twain) also as a defensive weapon

1936: 1st use of an electric fence, invented by William Gallagher

1960: Doug Philips prevented shortenings

1969: Robert B. Cox improved it more so

III. BIOGRAPHY OF DISCOVERER

In 1936 William Gallagher was getting very annoyed by his horse always using his car as a scratching post. So finally he was able to take his cars ignition and create an electric fence around his car. So unfortunately for the horse he was no longer able to use that scratching post. And unfortunately for Gallagher he was using the main power supplies which was made illegal. Fortunately both the horse and Gallagher were able to find alternatives to their problems. Gallagher made the electric fences capable of running on batteries. He also founded a family firm called Gallagher Group. Even today they are dedicated to Animal Management Systems and Security. His son Sir Bill Gallagher was deemed a knight in 2010. Gallagher Group fences currently surround the Buckingham Palace.

IV. IMPACT ON THE WORLD

Agriculture

Advantages:

• Does not need to physically restrain animals because of the shock.
• Since it is light weight it is easier to put up and can be put up quicker.
• Most animals will learn that if they touch the fence they get shocked so even if the electric fence is off they wont go near it.
• It can be powered with a battery or can be hooked up to a solar panel.
• It can keep animals off of runways.
• It can keep animals out of crops and off of private property.

Disadvantages:

• Some animals will run under the fences in between electric pulses.
• Some will push other individuals into the fence.
• Some use their heavy coats as insulation and are then able to push right through the fence.
• Some learn that when the fence is on it makes a slight clicking sound so when they don't hear the noise they know it is off and they will learn to take advantage of that.

Security (non-lethal):

• Freight trains
• Auto auctions
• Equipment rental carriers
• Warehouses/ commercial factories
• Prisons
• Military bases
• Housing communities
• Discourages suicide attempts on tops of buildings

Security (lethal):

• Used in WWI (1915) as a border for germans in Belgium against the Netherlands.
• Used in Nazi Concentration Camps
• Used presently in some high security prisons

V. JOURNAL ARTICLE

http://www.questiaschool.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5041019193

In this journal article it discusses the increasing population of large carnivores in Finland and how event the most recent electric fences could not stop them from destroying their livestock. As high tech and reliable as they are, there are some cases that are too severe for only an electric fence. Due to their disadvantages you can see how a shock may prevent a tamed horse from crossing over but it may not stop a wolf, lynx, or bear to run through it quickly. So depending on your circumstances an electric fence may or may not be your solution.

VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Electric Fences. (n.d.). Electric Fence and Dog Fence. Retrieved May 1, 2011, from http://www.electric-fences.net/2010/11/09/electric-fences-3/

Otstavel, T. (2009). The First Experience of Livestock Guarding Dogs Preventing Large Carnivore Damages in Finland. Ecology, 58. Retrieved April 29, 2011, from the Questia database.

Staunstrup, P. (n.d.). Burglar alarms, rescue equipment and electric fences - History of Ericsson . History of Ericsson - History of Ericsson . Retrieved April 30, 2011, from http://ericssonhistory.com/templates/Ericsson/Article.aspx?id=2095&ArticleID=1375&CatID=361&epslanguage=EN

The Discovery of Oxygen by John Stiffler

I. Introduction
Oxygen; the pure, simple gas, the limitless air, that surrounds us. It gives life, allows for organisms to function, and is a major element used in chemical experiments. Life as e know it couldn't exist without it. Yet two hundred and fifty years ago, we didn't even know that it existed, let alone how significant it was. Chemistry was just creeping into the modern era, and scientits began to pick apart at the concept of individual elements. Then, in 1774, a prominent natural philosipher, scientist, minister, and political theorist named Joseph Priestely began oerforming experiments on something he called a "new air", that is, a gas no one had discovered before. He isolated it as more pure than regualr air, and more functional. He had discovered oxygen.


II. Discovery
Not primarily a scientist, Priestely became intrigued with air during the latter part of his career. He spent much of his time researching and experimenting with it, eventually publishing a six volume work, Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air from 1774-1786. These volumes documented his theory on a material, determining how gases combusted, called phlogiston. However, the most fruitful part of his experimenting was his isolation of different gases, including nitric acid, ammonia, nitrous oxide, and hydrochloric acid. He wold boil, mix, and pour test samples of gas with nitrous air, using water and mercury as catalysts, to observe the reactions that would take place. He would then classify this gas based on the results. In 1774, one test yeilded what he referred to as dephlogisticated air: oxygen. He described it as different from other types of air, lighter, and more pure. It was far better for rspration and inflammation than any other gas he had discovered or used. He even noted it was better for any purpose than even the common air itself. He published a paper on it, and after recreating the gas several times, won acclaim for his discovery.


III. Biography of Discoverer
Born on March 13, 1733 in Birstall, Yorkshire, England, to Jonas and Mary Priestely, a family of English religious dissenters. when he almost died of illness in 1749, he abandoned his family's Calvinist traditions for his own, and wen tff to school at Daventry Academy. There he learned six languages, natural philopshy, theology, logic, and theory of mind. He then became a Protestant minister, opened a school, and led a congregation in Nantwich, Cheshire. He later became a teacher of rhetoric and language at Warrington Academy. In 1762 he married Mary Wilkinson, and the next year they ahd a daughter, Sarah. He worked on furthering education, pushing the need for history and education focued on students future needs and careers. he also focused on teaching natural philosphy, including anatomy and chemistry. His experiments on electricity created new discoveries about conduction and led to the creation of new equipment. He moved to Leeds to become their minister in 1767, where he successfully led the Mill Hill Chapel, published religious pamphlets on his own rational approach to theology, and avidly defended and assisted other dissenting groups. He also wroe his History of Electricity, theses relating to optics and vision, and created a formula for making soda water. Also, two sons, Joseph and William, were born. In 1773, the Lord Shelburne broght Priestely to Calne to be his children's tutor and in return would fund research. Over the next few years, he published works on materialist philosophy, duality, and religion, helped found Unitarianism based on his ideals, and began his experiments on air. It was during this time that he discovered oxygen. He later had a falling out with Shelburne and moved to Birmingham in 1780. There he used his findings on gasto help start the chemical evolution, which led to new chemical discoveries, and ultimately, the disproval of the phlogiston theory, crushing Priestely. He turned his attention to philsophy, and provided aid and defense for French revolutionaries and dissenters. However, his group of dissenters were forced to leave during riots in 1791. After living a few years in Hackney, life gre more difficult for the Priestelys, as Joseph was often ridiculed and dislike for his beliefs. So, in 1794, the family moved to Pennsylvania to start over. Immediately political groups tried to get his backin. In 1795, his scientific credibility was put under fire, followed by the death of his wife and son. Prietely, growing increasingly infirm, continued to be an educator and publishing philosphy until his death of illness in 1804.


IV. Impact on the World
Joseph Priestely's 1774 discovery impacted the way we view the air, chemistry, and eventually, respiration. He was made a member of every major scienific group and society in the western world, published over 150 papers and theses on science, religion, and philosophy. His theories on as, though some were proved to be wrong, helped to spark a chemicsal revoltuion that paved the way for modern chemistry. Although hs classification and understanding of oxygen as inaccurate, he nevertheless was the first to isolate oxygen and one of thefirst to confirm its existence. This would allow for the later discovery of elements and ultimately the periodic table. Also, his experiments, which showed that oxygen was better for breathing and combustion would allow for later inventions, such as protable oxygen tanks and oxygen lamps. His discovery, which he viewed as less significant than some of his other work, ultimately becam what he was most remembered for.


V. Journal Article
In a journal article, Joseph Priestely: Discoverer of Oxygen, written by the American Chemical Society, Joseph Priestely's research, experiments, and results are described. It first explains how gas was viewed, how scientists began experimetning with air, and Priestely's creation of soda water. Then, Priestely's backstory, his childhood, education, career, and position on religon and philosophy are briefly described. It then poses the question of how candles burn, the fundemenatal question which Priestely's experiment answered. Then, the nature of his experimens and his initial discovery of oxygen are laid down, followed by hs encounter with Lavoisier, one of the eminent French scientists studying air at the time, and how his discovery was proved and spread. Finally, the raminder of his life is briefly detailed. The article provides an excellent example of how important and impacting Priestely's discovery was, what it proved, and how it was proven. Ultimately, the article states that his discovery is hard to overstate and would pave the way for the future of chemistry.


VI. Conclusion
In conclusion, Joseph Priestel, an incredible man of many talents, was dedicated to natural philosphy, education, and theology. His passion caused him to inquire about the air, and allowed him to discover multiple gases, especially oxygen. This discovery allowed him to identify and dexcribe the nature of the gas which would later be recognized as the most imprtant. An experiment, which he viewed as only one of many, was one of the most imprtant discoveries ever and would go on to pave the way for modern chemistry.


VII. References
1. American Chemical Society. (2008). Joseph Priestley: Discoverer of Oxygen. ACS, Chemistry for Life.

2. Horvitz, Leslie Alan. (2002). Eureka! Stories of Scientific Discovery. New York: Wiley.

3. Myers, Richard. (2003). The Basics of Chemistry. Greenwood Press.