The Light Bulb
I. Introduction
The light bulb was invented in 1879 by a man of the name Thomas Edison. He was not the only one trying to make a light bulb that would work for the small areas such as a home or a night stand. Once he got the paten he formed the board of paten control which was a good thing for him because over 600 law suits were filed for copyright infringement.
II. Discovery
The incandescent lamps were the kind of lights that were usable in all the small places without blinding the user. People had become very accustomed to gasoline lit lamps and the companies were very profitable business so there was a sudden drop in profit when the light bulb came into play. He used an improved vacuum and filament to conduct a low currency light that was usable in everyday lives of people.
III. Biography
Thomas Edison was born on February 11, 1847 in Milan, Ohio and in his early life around 1859 he quit school in order to get a job. He moved to New York and became a partner with frank l. pope, who was a known electrical expert. In 1879 he invented the light bulb and made a huge profit off of this invention. On Feb. 24, 1886 he married a 20 year old lady by the name of Mina Miller who was also the daughter of a prosperous manufacturer. And he later purchased a land to live on and died on October 18, 1931.
IV. Impact on the World/Humanity
The light bulb made it so that we weren’t dependant on a fuel to light our homes and that we could light our homes without the risk of setting our homes on fire. This invention also made it convenient to be able to have light at the flip of a switch. The light bulb is now used in everyday life, in industries, offices and other places.
V. Journal Article Review
The article that I read basically said that Thomas did not invent the light bulb but merely enhanced a fifty year old idea. All that he had to do was make a lasting filament and a safety switch that allowed for it to be turned off when not in use. He also made little electric plants all over the US so that it could service more people at al times of the day not only at night.
Sources
Category. (n.d.). Thomas Edison - The Inventions of Thomas Edison. Inventors. Retrieved December 13, 2010, from http://inventors.about.com/library
Category. (n.d.). Thomas Edison - The Inventions of Thomas Edison. Inventors. Retrieved December 13, 2010, from http://inventors.about.com/library
Thomas (Alva) Edison Biography - Biography.com. (n.d.). Biography.com. Retrieved December 13, 2010, from http://www.biography.com/articles/Thomas-Edison-9284349
invention, t. t., & gas. (n.d.). Light Bulb History - Invention of the Light Bulb. The Great Idea Finder - Celebrating the Spirit of Innovation . Retrieved December 13, 2010, from http://www.ideafinder.com/history
Wednesday, December 29, 2010
Underwater Welding by William Luer
Underwater Welding
William Luer
I. Introduction:
Underwater welding has been in use since its discovery in 1932 by Soviet engineer and inventor Konstantin Konstantinovich Khrenov. This discovery would also prove to be extremely useful during the immense destruction of World War II (1939-1945). Welding is the process of uniting or fusing metals by hammering or compressing especially after being rendered soft or pasty by heat. It is most often used with steel, which has a melting point of about 1500o C (2732o F). The history of dry welding can be traced back thousands of years ago to the Bronze Age (3300-1200 BCE) and was also used to create the iron pillar; an 11,900-pound tower erected around 310 CE in Delhi, India.
II. Discovery:
Underwater welding is split into two main categories: dry welding and wet welding. Wet welding is the most common and is performed by a diver clad in a full wetsuit, a 30-pound helmet, and thin rubber gloves. In these rubber gloves, the diver holds a fully waterproof electrode that when charged, heats up the same as it would on land since water is equally conductive. The helmet contains a lense plate that can be flipped up and down over the eyes to protect them from the intense light and also supplies him with sufficient air. Less dangerous DC currents are always used over the common AC currents of your home because they lessen the chance of fatal shock.
Dry welding requires a makeshift habitat that is lowered from a ship, placed around the structure to be fixed, sealed and then drained of all water. This newly made hyperbaric chamber is filled with helium gas and can be operated in just like any other weld on land.
Underwater welding is based off the concepts and ideas of normal welding. In fact many of the wet welding techniques only have a slight variation that allows them to be able to function at an elevated pressure. One of the variations may be to create a helium filled chamber surrounding the structure. There are three other techniques used such as: manual metal arc welding (MMA), flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), and friction welding. MMA welding is the most common process used today. FCAW welding was the technique of choice in the former Soviet Union. Friction welding is used mainly in deep water repair due to the fact that is relatively insensitive to depth changes and is operated by robotic arms up to 10,000 feet under water.
III. Biography:
Konstantin Konstantinovich Khrenov has been credited with the discovery of underwater welding in 1932. Khrenov was born in Borovsk, Russia in 1894. He graduated from the department of electrochemistry of St. Petersburg State Electrotechnical University in 1918. In 1932, he worked as a lecturer at the Moscow Institute of Electromechanical Engineering and the Bauman Moscow State Technical University. His career was dedicated to developing and improving new techniques and equipment.
Due to his dedicated mindset and the extreme aid that underwater welding had towards the Soviet Union in WWII, Khrenov was given the Stalin Prize in 1946.
IV. Impact on the World:
Underwater welding has had a vast impact on the world as we know it. It is used most often to repair ships, oil platforms, and pipelines offshore that have been damaged, most often by hurricanes or explosions. During World War II, ships could be constructed, built, and repaired all without having to leave the water.
This may all sound too good to be true and you’re exactly right. There are three potential risks that may result from underwater welding. The first is electric shock from the electrode the diver is holding. The second risk is for the potential for pockets of explosive gas to be built up as a product of the welding and cutting. The third and final risk has to do with pressure changes. If a diver is to experience too rapid of pressure changes, deadly bubbles of nitrogen will emerge in his bloodstream and kill him.
Due to the high level of expertise required, Global Industries, a leading company in construction, engineering, and support for oil and gas industries, makes trainees undergo years of specialized training. As you can see, underwater welding also gives jobs to people from across the world.
V. Journal Article:
The Journal Article I chose has to do with the effects of wet underwater welding on the fracture behavior of welds. It takes into account the nature of the surrounding fluid having to do with temperature distribution. Inhomogeneous volume changes and thermal residual stresses occur on the weld due to the heating and cooling. A similar weld was performed in both a wet and dry weld scenario in order to see the differences.
In a dry weld, the molten pool of steel that dried to an inhomogeneous volume was 15mm longer than that of the wet weld because the water provides a high cooling rate. The depth and width between the two experiments were nearly identical. In conclusion, the water contact leads to a high cooling velocity and to a high temperature gradient in the vicinity of the weld seam compared to dry welding in air atmosphere.
Video
"Konstantin Khrenov : Define, Explore, Discuss." 1000s of Museums Online : MuseumStuff.com. Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Konstantin_Khrenov>.
"Konstantin Khrenov : Info, Images, Discussion." Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://www.joeinvestoronline.com/library/Konstantin-Khrenov.php>.
Lutz, Lindhost. On the Effects of Wet Underwater Welding on the Fracture Behaviour of Welds 1969: 1-8. Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://www.iasmirt.org/SMiRT16/G1969.PDF>.
"Underwater Welding (Knowledge Summary)." TWI - Welding and Joining Specialist. 2010. Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://www.twi.co.uk/content/ksdja001.html>.
U.S. Army Operator Ciculars. "Great Welding Hist
ory Information !!" Great Welding History Information. Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://www.weldguru.com/welding-history.html>.
"YouTube - Underwater Welding." YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. Ed. The History Chanel. Modern Marvels, 16 Dec. 2008. Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zt-IcUp82w4>.
William Luer
I. Introduction:
Underwater welding has been in use since its discovery in 1932 by Soviet engineer and inventor Konstantin Konstantinovich Khrenov. This discovery would also prove to be extremely useful during the immense destruction of World War II (1939-1945). Welding is the process of uniting or fusing metals by hammering or compressing especially after being rendered soft or pasty by heat. It is most often used with steel, which has a melting point of about 1500o C (2732o F). The history of dry welding can be traced back thousands of years ago to the Bronze Age (3300-1200 BCE) and was also used to create the iron pillar; an 11,900-pound tower erected around 310 CE in Delhi, India.
II. Discovery:
Underwater welding is split into two main categories: dry welding and wet welding. Wet welding is the most common and is performed by a diver clad in a full wetsuit, a 30-pound helmet, and thin rubber gloves. In these rubber gloves, the diver holds a fully waterproof electrode that when charged, heats up the same as it would on land since water is equally conductive. The helmet contains a lense plate that can be flipped up and down over the eyes to protect them from the intense light and also supplies him with sufficient air. Less dangerous DC currents are always used over the common AC currents of your home because they lessen the chance of fatal shock.
Dry welding requires a makeshift habitat that is lowered from a ship, placed around the structure to be fixed, sealed and then drained of all water. This newly made hyperbaric chamber is filled with helium gas and can be operated in just like any other weld on land.
Underwater welding is based off the concepts and ideas of normal welding. In fact many of the wet welding techniques only have a slight variation that allows them to be able to function at an elevated pressure. One of the variations may be to create a helium filled chamber surrounding the structure. There are three other techniques used such as: manual metal arc welding (MMA), flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), and friction welding. MMA welding is the most common process used today. FCAW welding was the technique of choice in the former Soviet Union. Friction welding is used mainly in deep water repair due to the fact that is relatively insensitive to depth changes and is operated by robotic arms up to 10,000 feet under water.
III. Biography:
Konstantin Konstantinovich Khrenov has been credited with the discovery of underwater welding in 1932. Khrenov was born in Borovsk, Russia in 1894. He graduated from the department of electrochemistry of St. Petersburg State Electrotechnical University in 1918. In 1932, he worked as a lecturer at the Moscow Institute of Electromechanical Engineering and the Bauman Moscow State Technical University. His career was dedicated to developing and improving new techniques and equipment.
Due to his dedicated mindset and the extreme aid that underwater welding had towards the Soviet Union in WWII, Khrenov was given the Stalin Prize in 1946.
IV. Impact on the World:
Underwater welding has had a vast impact on the world as we know it. It is used most often to repair ships, oil platforms, and pipelines offshore that have been damaged, most often by hurricanes or explosions. During World War II, ships could be constructed, built, and repaired all without having to leave the water.
This may all sound too good to be true and you’re exactly right. There are three potential risks that may result from underwater welding. The first is electric shock from the electrode the diver is holding. The second risk is for the potential for pockets of explosive gas to be built up as a product of the welding and cutting. The third and final risk has to do with pressure changes. If a diver is to experience too rapid of pressure changes, deadly bubbles of nitrogen will emerge in his bloodstream and kill him.
Due to the high level of expertise required, Global Industries, a leading company in construction, engineering, and support for oil and gas industries, makes trainees undergo years of specialized training. As you can see, underwater welding also gives jobs to people from across the world.
V. Journal Article:
The Journal Article I chose has to do with the effects of wet underwater welding on the fracture behavior of welds. It takes into account the nature of the surrounding fluid having to do with temperature distribution. Inhomogeneous volume changes and thermal residual stresses occur on the weld due to the heating and cooling. A similar weld was performed in both a wet and dry weld scenario in order to see the differences.
In a dry weld, the molten pool of steel that dried to an inhomogeneous volume was 15mm longer than that of the wet weld because the water provides a high cooling rate. The depth and width between the two experiments were nearly identical. In conclusion, the water contact leads to a high cooling velocity and to a high temperature gradient in the vicinity of the weld seam compared to dry welding in air atmosphere.
Video
"Konstantin Khrenov : Define, Explore, Discuss." 1000s of Museums Online : MuseumStuff.com. Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/Konstantin_Khrenov>.
"Konstantin Khrenov : Info, Images, Discussion." Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://www.joeinvestoronline.com/library/Konstantin-Khrenov.php>.
Lutz, Lindhost. On the Effects of Wet Underwater Welding on the Fracture Behaviour of Welds 1969: 1-8. Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://www.iasmirt.org/SMiRT16/G1969.PDF>.
"Underwater Welding (Knowledge Summary)." TWI - Welding and Joining Specialist. 2010. Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://www.twi.co.uk/content/ksdja001.html>.
U.S. Army Operator Ciculars. "Great Welding Hist
ory Information !!" Great Welding History Information. Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://www.weldguru.com/welding-history.html>.
"YouTube - Underwater Welding." YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. Ed. The History Chanel. Modern Marvels, 16 Dec. 2008. Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zt-IcUp82w4>.
The Play Pump by Jennifer Grigsby
The PlayPump
By Jennifer Grigsby
I. Introduction
Almost 3.6 million people throughout the world die from water-related diseases every year. In sub-Saharan Africa, as in many other places, the lack of water supply and sanitation are to blame. Dirty, unreliable water pumps are few and far between. In some villages in South Africa, women and girls walk miles every day to carry the dirty water back to their villages. At the age of 42, Trevor Field (a successful business executive) decided he wanted to give something back to the world. He worked with an inventor and in 1994, the first two PlayPumps were installed. The PlayPump is a merry-go-round that’s attached to a water pump. When kids play on it (spin it), it pumps clean, cool drinking water from the ground – it is a more efficient way to get clean water.
Figure 1: Play Pump Labeled
Figure 2: Play Pump Numbered Diagram
II. Discovery
More and more PlayPumps were installed in South Africa’s Masinga district. In 1999, South Africa’s President Nelson Mandela came to the opening of a new school where a PlayPump had been installed, which was great publicity for the PlayPump. By 2005, about 700 PlayPumps had been installed throughout South Africa. In 2006, Laura Bush announced a $16.4 million grant toward building more pumps in South African communities, and PlayPumps International intended to provide water for up to 10 million people by 2010. To date, over 1,000 PlayPumps are in use in 5 African countries.
The PlayPump is beneficial to many South African communities not just because it pumps out clean drinking water powered by kids having fun, but also because it benefits the economy: the water towers also function as billboards. Some of these billboards/water towers are advertisements to help finance the pump, and some are campaigns such as AIDS awareness.
III. Biography of Investigator
55-year-old Trevor Field was born in Birmingham, England. He is a British businessman who has lots of experience in the industries of outdoor advertising, printing, and publishing in South Africa and the United Kingdom. He moved to South Africa in 1975 and worked there 5 years installing cables so people could watch TV. In 1980, he joined First General Media (a magazine group) and was the National Sales Manager in South Africa and the United States.
In 1995, however, his focus became solely on the PlayPump water systems. He teamed up with Paul Ristic (an inventor) in 1996 and they officially founded the Roundabout Outdoor company. “Mr. Field is the marketing director of Roundabout Outdoor, the founder of the PlayPump™ water pumping system, and an active social entrepreneur.” (***)
IV. Impact on the World/Humanity
The PlayPump has made a huge impact on the lives of over 2 million people in Africa. It provides entertainment for children at schools while also providing clean, safe drinking water and advertisements. Not only does this make healthier people and happier kids, but it also creates a greater sense of gender equality among schools and villages. Before the PlayPump, women were the ones who had to go out and carry the water back to their families. Girls sometimes had to miss school or get there late because this was also what was expected of them. Females got the water and males went to school/did the “more important” stuff. But now, girls are getting just as good of an education as boys, and since boys and girls both play on the PlayPump, both genders are contributing to the community’s water supply and neither has to take a toll for it: one gender is not superior to the other.
There are far less water-related illnesses because of the PlayPump, and in the best cases, life is a whole lot easier and safer. However, there are some cases that didn’t work out as well as others. Some of the pumps have broken, and the villages have been without a water supply of their own (they had to share with a neighboring village) for 6 months. But 80 to 90 percent of the pumps installed are a success and are improving the lives of many Africans more every day.
V. Journal Article Review
When children spin on the PlayPump, clean water is pumped from under the ground into a 2,500-liter tank (7 meters tall). The faucet is easy to use, so it is an easy task for adults and children to draw water. Excess water is diverted from the tank back into the ground (borehole).
All four sides of the water tank are used for billboards (2 sides for consumer advertising, 2 sides for health and educational messages). The money from leasing out advertisement space pays for pump maintenance.
The pump is easy to operate, reasonable in terms of costs and maintenance, can produce up to 1,400 liters of water per hour, and is effective up to a depth of 100 meters. It is durable, sturdy, and simple. However, it is not entirely safe for children because the pump can spin very fast, and they could fall off and land on the concrete base. When the pumps are being installed, there is no onsite supervision. Combined with the standard of poor quality of workmanship, this results in unreliable pumps that break and require more maintenance than is given.
There is an issue of child labor in the PlayPump project. Some adults actually pay children to “play”, the pump can be very tiring, and the community’s water source relies on children.
Since the water is virtually free, the value of water is decreased. However, the cost of the pump itself has gone from $6,500 to $14,000 within the last 2 years without explanation to clients.
All in all, the PlayPump is a brilliant and innovative idea. However, it has many problems that need to be revised. It can be improved with some minor modifications.
Video Links: Video 1
Video 2
Video 3
References:
Trevor Field Bio | Premiere Motivational Speakers Bureau. (n.d.). Premiere Motivational Speakers Bureau. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://premierespeakers.com/trevor_field/bio
Problem with the PlayPump | PRI's The World. (2010, June 29). PRI's The World. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.theworld.org/2010/06/29/problem-with-the-playpump/
Water.org » Water Facts. (n.d.). Water.org. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://water.org/learn-about-the-water-crisis/facts/
Watson, S. (n.d.). HowStuffWorks "How PlayPump Works". HowStuffWorks. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green-tech/sustainable/playpump.htm
Journal Article:
An Evaluation of the PlayPump® Water System. (n.d.). PBS. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/southernafrica904/flash/pdf/unicef_pp_report.pdf
Pictures:
PlayPump helps quench thirst the fun and simple way - technabob. (1930, January 9). cool gadgets, gizmos, games and weird science - technabob. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://technabob.com/blog/2009/01/30/playpump-helps-quench-thirst/
Chambers, A. (1924, November 9). Africa's not-so-magic roundabout | Andrew Chambers | Comment is free | guardian.co.uk . Latest news, comment and reviews from the Guardian | guardian.co.uk . Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/nov/24/africa-charity-water-pumps-roundabouts
Videos:
NationalGeographic. (2009, January 8). YouTube - Playpumps International. YouTube - Broadcast Yourself.. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qjgcHOWcWGE
YouTube - PBS FRONTLINE World Video | PlayPump . (2014, November 9). YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. . Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wrmQ9s2t1Jw
YouTube - PLAYPUMP BBC 2 - JULY '09 . (1929, August 9). YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. . Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dg_vWWqj-2M
1. play pump labeled
2. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wrmQ9s2t1Jw
3. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qjgcHOWcWGE
4. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dg_vWWqj-2M
5. play pump numbered diagram
By Jennifer Grigsby
I. Introduction
Almost 3.6 million people throughout the world die from water-related diseases every year. In sub-Saharan Africa, as in many other places, the lack of water supply and sanitation are to blame. Dirty, unreliable water pumps are few and far between. In some villages in South Africa, women and girls walk miles every day to carry the dirty water back to their villages. At the age of 42, Trevor Field (a successful business executive) decided he wanted to give something back to the world. He worked with an inventor and in 1994, the first two PlayPumps were installed. The PlayPump is a merry-go-round that’s attached to a water pump. When kids play on it (spin it), it pumps clean, cool drinking water from the ground – it is a more efficient way to get clean water.
Figure 1: Play Pump Labeled
Figure 2: Play Pump Numbered Diagram
II. Discovery
More and more PlayPumps were installed in South Africa’s Masinga district. In 1999, South Africa’s President Nelson Mandela came to the opening of a new school where a PlayPump had been installed, which was great publicity for the PlayPump. By 2005, about 700 PlayPumps had been installed throughout South Africa. In 2006, Laura Bush announced a $16.4 million grant toward building more pumps in South African communities, and PlayPumps International intended to provide water for up to 10 million people by 2010. To date, over 1,000 PlayPumps are in use in 5 African countries.
The PlayPump is beneficial to many South African communities not just because it pumps out clean drinking water powered by kids having fun, but also because it benefits the economy: the water towers also function as billboards. Some of these billboards/water towers are advertisements to help finance the pump, and some are campaigns such as AIDS awareness.
III. Biography of Investigator
55-year-old Trevor Field was born in Birmingham, England. He is a British businessman who has lots of experience in the industries of outdoor advertising, printing, and publishing in South Africa and the United Kingdom. He moved to South Africa in 1975 and worked there 5 years installing cables so people could watch TV. In 1980, he joined First General Media (a magazine group) and was the National Sales Manager in South Africa and the United States.
In 1995, however, his focus became solely on the PlayPump water systems. He teamed up with Paul Ristic (an inventor) in 1996 and they officially founded the Roundabout Outdoor company. “Mr. Field is the marketing director of Roundabout Outdoor, the founder of the PlayPump™ water pumping system, and an active social entrepreneur.” (***)
IV. Impact on the World/Humanity
The PlayPump has made a huge impact on the lives of over 2 million people in Africa. It provides entertainment for children at schools while also providing clean, safe drinking water and advertisements. Not only does this make healthier people and happier kids, but it also creates a greater sense of gender equality among schools and villages. Before the PlayPump, women were the ones who had to go out and carry the water back to their families. Girls sometimes had to miss school or get there late because this was also what was expected of them. Females got the water and males went to school/did the “more important” stuff. But now, girls are getting just as good of an education as boys, and since boys and girls both play on the PlayPump, both genders are contributing to the community’s water supply and neither has to take a toll for it: one gender is not superior to the other.
There are far less water-related illnesses because of the PlayPump, and in the best cases, life is a whole lot easier and safer. However, there are some cases that didn’t work out as well as others. Some of the pumps have broken, and the villages have been without a water supply of their own (they had to share with a neighboring village) for 6 months. But 80 to 90 percent of the pumps installed are a success and are improving the lives of many Africans more every day.
V. Journal Article Review
When children spin on the PlayPump, clean water is pumped from under the ground into a 2,500-liter tank (7 meters tall). The faucet is easy to use, so it is an easy task for adults and children to draw water. Excess water is diverted from the tank back into the ground (borehole).
All four sides of the water tank are used for billboards (2 sides for consumer advertising, 2 sides for health and educational messages). The money from leasing out advertisement space pays for pump maintenance.
The pump is easy to operate, reasonable in terms of costs and maintenance, can produce up to 1,400 liters of water per hour, and is effective up to a depth of 100 meters. It is durable, sturdy, and simple. However, it is not entirely safe for children because the pump can spin very fast, and they could fall off and land on the concrete base. When the pumps are being installed, there is no onsite supervision. Combined with the standard of poor quality of workmanship, this results in unreliable pumps that break and require more maintenance than is given.
There is an issue of child labor in the PlayPump project. Some adults actually pay children to “play”, the pump can be very tiring, and the community’s water source relies on children.
Since the water is virtually free, the value of water is decreased. However, the cost of the pump itself has gone from $6,500 to $14,000 within the last 2 years without explanation to clients.
All in all, the PlayPump is a brilliant and innovative idea. However, it has many problems that need to be revised. It can be improved with some minor modifications.
Video Links: Video 1
Video 2
Video 3
References:
Trevor Field Bio | Premiere Motivational Speakers Bureau. (n.d.). Premiere Motivational Speakers Bureau. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://premierespeakers.com/trevor_field/bio
Problem with the PlayPump | PRI's The World. (2010, June 29). PRI's The World. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.theworld.org/2010/06/29/problem-with-the-playpump/
Water.org » Water Facts. (n.d.). Water.org. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://water.org/learn-about-the-water-crisis/facts/
Watson, S. (n.d.). HowStuffWorks "How PlayPump Works". HowStuffWorks. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green-tech/sustainable/playpump.htm
Journal Article:
An Evaluation of the PlayPump® Water System. (n.d.). PBS. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/southernafrica904/flash/pdf/unicef_pp_report.pdf
Pictures:
PlayPump helps quench thirst the fun and simple way - technabob. (1930, January 9). cool gadgets, gizmos, games and weird science - technabob. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://technabob.com/blog/2009/01/30/playpump-helps-quench-thirst/
Chambers, A. (1924, November 9). Africa's not-so-magic roundabout | Andrew Chambers | Comment is free | guardian.co.uk . Latest news, comment and reviews from the Guardian | guardian.co.uk . Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/nov/24/africa-charity-water-pumps-roundabouts
Videos:
NationalGeographic. (2009, January 8). YouTube - Playpumps International. YouTube - Broadcast Yourself.. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qjgcHOWcWGE
YouTube - PBS FRONTLINE World Video | PlayPump . (2014, November 9). YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. . Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wrmQ9s2t1Jw
YouTube - PLAYPUMP BBC 2 - JULY '09 . (1929, August 9). YouTube - Broadcast Yourself. . Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dg_vWWqj-2M
1. play pump labeled
2. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wrmQ9s2t1Jw
3. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qjgcHOWcWGE
4. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dg_vWWqj-2M
5. play pump numbered diagram
Monday, December 13, 2010
AMNIOCENTESIS
By Patience Elett
VI. Dr. Douglas Bevis
1. Jeanty, P., Shah, D., & Roussis, P. (1990). Single-needle insertion in twin amniocentesis. Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine, 9(9 511-517), Retrieved from
2. Amniocentesis. (2010, July). Retrieved December 13, 2010, from babycenter website: http://www.babycenter.com/0_amniocentesis_327.bc?
3. Amniocentesis. (n.d.). Retrieved December 13, 2010, from Medical Discoveries website:
http://www.discoveriesinmedicine.com/A-An/Amniocentesis.html
4. The First Test-Tube Baby. (1978, July 31). Time, 6. Retrieved from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,946934-6,00.html
5. Amniocentesis (inventions). (n.d.). Retrieved December 13, 2010, from Crankshaft website: http://www.the-crankshaft.info/2010/04/amniocentesis.html
6. Crompton, A. C. (1994, July 30). Obituary: Professor Douglas Bevis . Retrieved from HighBeam Research website: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-4666571.html
Overview of Procedure
I. Introduction
Amniocentesis is an optional prenatal test that can establish whether or not your baby has certain genetic, mental, or physical disorders or defects. This is determined by analyzing a sample of the amniotic fluid while the mother is in her fifth month of pregnancy. Depending on the results, some families opt for an abortion. Amniocentesis can alert your doctor of physical defects which can be fixed before birth. The downside of amniocentesis is that it creates a chance of miscarriage. Amniocentesis is one of the most common prenatal diagnostic tools.
II. Before and During Amniocentesis Discovery
Since the beginning of time, the inability to see or touch a fetus in a pregnant woman was a huge problem in obstetric care and in diagnosing mental and physical health issues of an unborn child. Before amniocentesis was discovered and available, prenatal tests were extremely limited and severely risky. By the late 1920s or early 1930s, amniocentesis was a rarely used but accepted procedure. The use of amniocentesis became widely used after Douglas Bevis got his article published in the February 1952 issue of Lancet. The study explained in this article was conducted at St. Mary’s Hospital in Manchester , England
III. What Amniocentesis Can Detect and Prevention of Defects
Eight weeks after conception, the prenatal child is about 2.5 centimeters long and has all of the anatomic elements it will have when it’s born. Diabetic mothers and mothers older than thirty-four have higher than usual chances of delivering babies who have birth defects. These are two of the reasons that amniocentesis is suggested to expecting mothers.
Amniocentesis can be used to find out the sex of the baby. If the fetal cells contain a “Barr Body” (chromatin mass made of nucleic acid and protein on the edge of the nucleus [A complex body within a cell that contains the cell’s hereditary material and controls its growth]), then the fetus is female. Knowing the sex of the fetus is important in assessing the potential of a sex-linked (affects only one sex) disease when the child is born.
Amniocentesis can be used to rule out or diagnose uterine infections.
By measuring the level of AFP in the amniotic fluid, you can determine whether or not the fetus has neural tube defects such as spina bifida and anencephaly.
Amniocentesis can also detect over two hundred genetic disorders.
Amniocentesis detects nearly all chromosomal disorders in a fetus, and is more than 99% accurate with diagnostics.
Amniocentesis cannot detect other physical birth defects such as cleft lip or heart malformation.
If the lungs of the fetus are not mature enough to work properly after birth, a hormone can be administered to encourage development.
V. How Amniocentesis is Performed
In the pioneering days of amniocentesis, doctors put the needle into the uterus guided only by touch and tried not to stick the placenta, the baby, or umbilical cord. Nowadays, ultrasound machines rule out that risk because doctors can see where everything is inside of the mother. The mother is given a shot to numb the pain, and then fluid is taken from the amniotic sac and sent into the labs for analysis and culturing. This takes anywhere from ten to twenty days. The sample of amniotic fluid is typically about four teaspoons. The woman’s body will replenish the depleted supply of fluid. During early pregnancy, the amniotic fluid looks like blood serum. The amniotic fluid contains fetal cells from skin, and from the gastrointestinal, reproductive, and respiratory tracts. Once the fluid is extracted, the fetal cells are separated out. Subnormal lecithin production in a prenatal baby typically indicates that the baby will have respiratory distress syndrome or hyaline membrane disease after birth. Both diseases have the potential to become fatal. Diabetic mothers commonly bear children with such troubles.
Dr. Douglas Charles Aitchison Bevis, born May 28th 1919, was an obstetrician, and a gynecologist. He was a consultant at Park Hospital , Manchester Sheffield University Hospital Leeds University Hospital Sheffield on June 25th, 1994. Dr. Bevis was one of the doctors included in a group trained in Manchester Leeds , and so Bevis set the main foundation for its accomplishment.
VII. Journal Article Summary
Amniocentesis in twin growth is uncommon for most medical centers. The technique used includes double needle penetration and inserting dye into the first amniotic sac. Now a new method is being proposed. It only takes one needle instead of two, and it doesn’t need any dye. It offers positive proof of tapping the gestational sacs. Although there are potential risks involved, the good outweighs the bad.
Bibliography
1. Jeanty, P., Shah, D., & Roussis, P. (1990). Single-needle insertion in twin amniocentesis. Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine, 9(9 511-517), Retrieved from
2. Amniocentesis. (2010, July). Retrieved December 13, 2010, from babycenter website: http://www.babycenter.com/0_amniocentesis_327.bc?
3. Amniocentesis. (n.d.). Retrieved December 13, 2010, from Medical Discoveries website:
http://www.discoveriesinmedicine.com/A-An/Amniocentesis.html
4. The First Test-Tube Baby. (1978, July 31). Time, 6. Retrieved from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,946934-6,00.html
5. Amniocentesis (inventions). (n.d.). Retrieved December 13, 2010, from Crankshaft website: http://www.the-crankshaft.info/2010/04/amniocentesis.html
6. Crompton, A. C. (1994, July 30). Obituary: Professor Douglas Bevis . Retrieved from HighBeam Research website: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-4666571.html
The Discovery of Penicillin - Donato DiNorcia
I. Introduction
Penicillin was discovered in the year 1928 by Alexander Fleming. Even though Alexander Fleming was the discoverer of Penicillin, he never tried to test the drug as a medicine, instead, Howard Walter Florey, Ernst Chain, and Norman Heatley did. Thus the discovery of penicillin as a medicine was attributed to them. What is penicillin? Penicillin is a group of antibodies used to counter serious diseases. Penicillin is a rather old drug that is still used in many other countries today. Penicillin’s are mixtures that are naturally and organically produced. The formula for penicillin is C16H18N2O5S. Today many bacteria had developed resistance to the drug yet it is still effective. There are 4 classes of penicillins, based upon their ability to kill various types of bacteria. They include: Natural Penicillins, Penicillinase-Resistant Penicillins Aminopenicillins, and Extended Spectrum Penicillins. In all there are more than 50 different types of penicillin.
II. Discovery
The discovery of penicillin was originally noticed by a French medical student, Ernest Duchesne, in 1896. Ernest Duchesne documented his discovery in a paper in 1897, yet it was not accepted by the Institut Pasteur for the reason of his youth. There were a few other people who also discovered penicillin a few years previous to Fleming yet none of them had shared or developed the drug. Penicillin was “re-discovered” by Alexander Fleming on Friday, September 28th, 1928. He observed that a plate culture of Staphylococcus had been contaminated by a blue-green mold and that colonies of bacteria adjacent to the mold were being dissolved. Even though the re-discovery of penicillin wasn’t until the year 1928, it was not until the year 1945 that it was used for a medicine. This is because there was not sufficient enough stock to be mass produced and the drug had not been totally refined and tested. His discovery was accidental. In his laboratory Fleming noticed a Petri-dish containing Staphylococcus plate culture he had mistakenly left open. The substance was contaminated by blue-green mould, and formed visible growth. The substance was growing, along with eating the bacteria in the Petri-dish. He grew the substance again and discovered that it was a Penicillium mould. In its early stages, penicillin was most effective against Gram-positive bacteria. Fleming was convinced that penicillin would not last long enough to fight off pathogenic bacteria in the human body, thus in 1931, he put a hold on his work. Eventually he had people experiment with penicillin and in the year 1945, Florey and Chain created the drug, penicillin, and they shared their Nobel prize with Fleming.
III. Alexander Fleming
Alexander Fleming was born on August 6th, 1881. He was a Scottish biologist and a pharmacologist. The things he is most known for are his discoveries of the enzyme lysosome and penicillin. His discovery of penicillin got him the Nobel Prize in 1945, in which he shared with Howard Florey and Ernst Chain. After World War I, Fleming actively searched for anti-bacterial agents. His reason for doing this is because he witnessed so many soldiers die from infected wounds. In the day, people used antiseptics, which did more harm than good for they killed the patients’ immunological defenses more than they killed the invading bacteria. Fleming did an experiment in which described why these antiseptics were killing more soldiers than infection itself during World War I. Antiseptics are drugs that work well on the surface, but they did not have the capability to clean deep wounds, which sheltered bacteria and instead of removing the bad bacteria, the antiseptics removed the beneficial agents. Fleming’s discovery of Penicillin was a complete accident even though his intent was to create a drug with qualities in which penicillin has. - "When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn't plan to revolutionize all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic, or bacteria killer," Fleming would later say, "But I suppose that was exactly what I did" Those are words directly stated by Fleming, proving his accidental discovery.
IV. Impact Penicillin discovery had on the world
The discovery of penicillin changed the course of history. The ingredient in the mold, in which Fleming named penicillin, was really an infection-fighting agent with huge potential. When it was finally recognized, this life-saving drug altered history forever. The discovery completely changed the treatment of bacterial infections. By the 1950’s, Fleming's discovery had created a drug that had the potential to drive out diseases like syphilis, gangrene and tuberculosis. Penicillin was the first antibiotic to be invented and is used to combat powerful bacteria and fatal infections.
V. Journal Article
Fleming Discovers Penicillin
The Article “Fleming Discovers Penicillin” states that Fleming discovered lysozyme, an enzyme in many body fluids, such as tears. This enzyme had a natural antibacterial effect, but not against it didn’t have the strongest effect against infectious agents; thus he continued his search. Fleming was always working on multiple things in his lab, sometimes causing accidental mixing of experiments. His messiness proved to be very fortunate. In 1928, he was cleaning up a pile of Petri dishes where he had been growing bacteria, but he had been piled in the sink. He opened each one and examined it before tossing it into the cleaning solution. One of them looked odd to him so he looked into it and he discovered penicillin. It was that simple. The article also says that Fleming actually was okay with receiving aid from Howard Walter Florey and Ernst Chain. Because of Fleming’s selflessness, the antibiotic was created and millions of lives were saved.
Videos about Penicillin:
The discovery of Penicillin- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qeZLLhx5kU
A basic overview of Fleming’s life- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rVOz1cD6_MI
The beginning of the movie “The story of Penicillin” - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bdYiq3Y4OHg
Sources:
• Fleming discovers Penicillin (1998). Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/dm28pe.html
• Penicillin (2010). Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillin
• Alexander Fleming (2010). Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming
• Penicillin Antibiotics information- Uses and side effects (2010). Retrieved from http://ezinearticles.com/?Penicillin-Antibiotics-Classification---Uses-and-Side-Effects&id=401820
• Cerner Multum, Inc. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.drugs.com/penicillin.html
• The history of Penicillin (2010). Retrieved from http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinventions/a/Penicillin.htm
• Alexander Fleming and the Discovery of Penicillin (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.essortment.com/all/alexanderflemin_rmkm.htm
• Jacoby D., & Youngson R. (2005) The Encyclopedia of Family Health. New York: Marshall Cavendish.
• Wootton, D. (2006). Bad Medicine, Doctors Doing Harm Since Hippocrates. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Horvitz, L. A. (2002). Eureka! Scientific Breakthroughs That Changed the World. New York: Wiley.
• Amyes, S. G. (2001). Magic Bullets, Lost Horizons. The rise and Falls of Antibiotics. London: Taylor and Francis.
Penicillin was discovered in the year 1928 by Alexander Fleming. Even though Alexander Fleming was the discoverer of Penicillin, he never tried to test the drug as a medicine, instead, Howard Walter Florey, Ernst Chain, and Norman Heatley did. Thus the discovery of penicillin as a medicine was attributed to them. What is penicillin? Penicillin is a group of antibodies used to counter serious diseases. Penicillin is a rather old drug that is still used in many other countries today. Penicillin’s are mixtures that are naturally and organically produced. The formula for penicillin is C16H18N2O5S. Today many bacteria had developed resistance to the drug yet it is still effective. There are 4 classes of penicillins, based upon their ability to kill various types of bacteria. They include: Natural Penicillins, Penicillinase-Resistant Penicillins Aminopenicillins, and Extended Spectrum Penicillins. In all there are more than 50 different types of penicillin.
II. Discovery
The discovery of penicillin was originally noticed by a French medical student, Ernest Duchesne, in 1896. Ernest Duchesne documented his discovery in a paper in 1897, yet it was not accepted by the Institut Pasteur for the reason of his youth. There were a few other people who also discovered penicillin a few years previous to Fleming yet none of them had shared or developed the drug. Penicillin was “re-discovered” by Alexander Fleming on Friday, September 28th, 1928. He observed that a plate culture of Staphylococcus had been contaminated by a blue-green mold and that colonies of bacteria adjacent to the mold were being dissolved. Even though the re-discovery of penicillin wasn’t until the year 1928, it was not until the year 1945 that it was used for a medicine. This is because there was not sufficient enough stock to be mass produced and the drug had not been totally refined and tested. His discovery was accidental. In his laboratory Fleming noticed a Petri-dish containing Staphylococcus plate culture he had mistakenly left open. The substance was contaminated by blue-green mould, and formed visible growth. The substance was growing, along with eating the bacteria in the Petri-dish. He grew the substance again and discovered that it was a Penicillium mould. In its early stages, penicillin was most effective against Gram-positive bacteria. Fleming was convinced that penicillin would not last long enough to fight off pathogenic bacteria in the human body, thus in 1931, he put a hold on his work. Eventually he had people experiment with penicillin and in the year 1945, Florey and Chain created the drug, penicillin, and they shared their Nobel prize with Fleming.
III. Alexander Fleming
Alexander Fleming was born on August 6th, 1881. He was a Scottish biologist and a pharmacologist. The things he is most known for are his discoveries of the enzyme lysosome and penicillin. His discovery of penicillin got him the Nobel Prize in 1945, in which he shared with Howard Florey and Ernst Chain. After World War I, Fleming actively searched for anti-bacterial agents. His reason for doing this is because he witnessed so many soldiers die from infected wounds. In the day, people used antiseptics, which did more harm than good for they killed the patients’ immunological defenses more than they killed the invading bacteria. Fleming did an experiment in which described why these antiseptics were killing more soldiers than infection itself during World War I. Antiseptics are drugs that work well on the surface, but they did not have the capability to clean deep wounds, which sheltered bacteria and instead of removing the bad bacteria, the antiseptics removed the beneficial agents. Fleming’s discovery of Penicillin was a complete accident even though his intent was to create a drug with qualities in which penicillin has. - "When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn't plan to revolutionize all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic, or bacteria killer," Fleming would later say, "But I suppose that was exactly what I did" Those are words directly stated by Fleming, proving his accidental discovery.
IV. Impact Penicillin discovery had on the world
The discovery of penicillin changed the course of history. The ingredient in the mold, in which Fleming named penicillin, was really an infection-fighting agent with huge potential. When it was finally recognized, this life-saving drug altered history forever. The discovery completely changed the treatment of bacterial infections. By the 1950’s, Fleming's discovery had created a drug that had the potential to drive out diseases like syphilis, gangrene and tuberculosis. Penicillin was the first antibiotic to be invented and is used to combat powerful bacteria and fatal infections.
V. Journal Article
Fleming Discovers Penicillin
The Article “Fleming Discovers Penicillin” states that Fleming discovered lysozyme, an enzyme in many body fluids, such as tears. This enzyme had a natural antibacterial effect, but not against it didn’t have the strongest effect against infectious agents; thus he continued his search. Fleming was always working on multiple things in his lab, sometimes causing accidental mixing of experiments. His messiness proved to be very fortunate. In 1928, he was cleaning up a pile of Petri dishes where he had been growing bacteria, but he had been piled in the sink. He opened each one and examined it before tossing it into the cleaning solution. One of them looked odd to him so he looked into it and he discovered penicillin. It was that simple. The article also says that Fleming actually was okay with receiving aid from Howard Walter Florey and Ernst Chain. Because of Fleming’s selflessness, the antibiotic was created and millions of lives were saved.
Videos about Penicillin:
The discovery of Penicillin- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qeZLLhx5kU
A basic overview of Fleming’s life- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rVOz1cD6_MI
The beginning of the movie “The story of Penicillin” - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bdYiq3Y4OHg
Sources:
• Fleming discovers Penicillin (1998). Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/dm28pe.html
• Penicillin (2010). Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillin
• Alexander Fleming (2010). Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming
• Penicillin Antibiotics information- Uses and side effects (2010). Retrieved from http://ezinearticles.com/?Penicillin-Antibiotics-Classification---Uses-and-Side-Effects&id=401820
• Cerner Multum, Inc. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.drugs.com/penicillin.html
• The history of Penicillin (2010). Retrieved from http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinventions/a/Penicillin.htm
• Alexander Fleming and the Discovery of Penicillin (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.essortment.com/all/alexanderflemin_rmkm.htm
• Jacoby D., & Youngson R. (2005) The Encyclopedia of Family Health. New York: Marshall Cavendish.
• Wootton, D. (2006). Bad Medicine, Doctors Doing Harm Since Hippocrates. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Horvitz, L. A. (2002). Eureka! Scientific Breakthroughs That Changed the World. New York: Wiley.
• Amyes, S. G. (2001). Magic Bullets, Lost Horizons. The rise and Falls of Antibiotics. London: Taylor and Francis.
Sunday, December 12, 2010
RADIO WAVES!!!!
Intro
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation that, like all other electromagnetic waves, travels at the speed of light. Natural radio waves are made by lightning and by astronomical objects. Artificially generated radio waves are used for radar and other navigation systems, fixed and mobile communication, satellite communication, Internet uses, and many other things.
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation that, like all other electromagnetic waves, travels at the speed of light. Natural radio waves are made by lightning and by astronomical objects. Artificially generated radio waves are used for radar and other navigation systems, fixed and mobile communication, satellite communication, Internet uses, and many other things.
Discovery
Radio waves were first mentioned in the mathematical work done in 1865 by James C. Maxwell. Maxwell noticed properties that were similar between electromagnetic force and light. With these properties in mind, he developed mathematical equations that would explain his ideas. And then, a bright man by the name of Heinrich Hertz came along. He was fascinated by the mathematical works of Maxwell, and was predisposed to prove these equations with the use of experiments that would animate the idea of radio waves. After analyzing all the data that he came about after years of research, he made the Hertz antenna receiver. And with this device, he became the first person to send a wave from one antenna and receive it on another. And that was extremely cool, considering that this was over 120 years ago!
Hertz Maxwell
Hertz Bio
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was born in Hamburg, Germany. His dad was a lawyer and his mom a housewife. In his youth Heinrich’s hobby was building mechanical objects in the family workshop. Hertz began his college studies at the University of Munich. After very little time, he transferred to the University of Berlin, where he received a doctorate in Philosophy. In other words, he was a pretty smart guy!
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was born in Hamburg, Germany. His dad was a lawyer and his mom a housewife. In his youth Heinrich’s hobby was building mechanical objects in the family workshop. Hertz began his college studies at the University of Munich. After very little time, he transferred to the University of Berlin, where he received a doctorate in Philosophy. In other words, he was a pretty smart guy!
Impact on Society
This man is responsible for arguably the most important discovery when talking about modern technology, and he was so cool that he did this in 1887! Radio waves are used so much in the modern world. They are used in transmitting sound and television signals, which is something that we use quite often. They are also used so astronauts can communicate with earth without having to send notes tied to asteroids. Satellites are just huge radio transceivers. And of course, CELL PHONES!
Video 1
Video 2
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCPxbhjDiGw&feature=related (this one has very calming music, watch it and ignore the science and just close your eyes, feel the music, let it sooth your soul)
References
Heinrich Rudolph Hertz. (n.d.). Corrosion science and engineering information hub. Retrieved December 13, 2010, from http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Biographies/HertzBio.htm
Hertz. (n.d.). Antique Wireless And Scientific Instruments. Retrieved December 13, 2010, from http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_HERTZ.HTM
Radio waves. (n.d.). Kids Radio waves. Retrieved from http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/radio.html
The, B. (n.d.). Biography - James Clerk Maxwell. Answers in Genesis - Creation, Evolution, Christian Apologetics. Retrieved December 13, 2010, from http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/bios/jc_maxwell.asp
YouTube - Electromagnetic Spectrum: Radio Waves. (n.d.). YouTube - Broadcast
Polygraph -Zoe Tenreiro
INTRODUCTION:
The lie detector test was originally used to preform harsh forms of torture in the middle ages.
Daniel Defoe connected it with lying in 1730.
James Mackenzie added to it in 1902.
It was fully modified by a man named Leonarde Keeler in the 1930's.
In 1924 police were allowed to use it in their interrogations.
It was able to detect lying because the machine measure your change in breathing, blood pressure, pulses, and perspiration.
A person would record the results.
Usually when a person was lying they will sweat, breath heavier, and raise their blood pressure involuntarily.
DISCOVERY/INVENTION:
A polygraph is when a person is asked a series of questions that they are supposed to give the true answer to.
They are closely monitored to detect any change in blood pressure and or pulse beats etc.
The most recent version of the lie detector was invented by Leonarde Keeler.
The polygraph is considered one of the most prominent inventions Encyclopaedia Britannica Almanac.
It was ranked in the top 325!
Keeler decided to add electrodes to peoples finger tips to measure the sweat loss as well.
BIOGRAPHY:
Although Leonarde Keeler was the most recent scientist to help modify the lie detector John Larson is the most well know inventor.
He was a police officer and a medical student at the University of California.
John Invented his version of the lie detector in the year 1921.
IMPACT ON THE WORLD:
Having the polygraph greatly impacted the United States government in as early as world war I.
They would use it to distinguish spies.
But it has also impacted our society.
For example now that we can prove that someone is lying by taking this test why swear on a bible?
JOURNAL ARTICLE REVIEW:
In my journal article it explains the controversy with using the polygraph on governmental workers and employees. People would be able to argue freedom of speech and that they were unable to say what they needed to say freely.
WORKS CITED:
Bellis, Mary. "History of the Lie Detector or Polygraph Machine." Inventors. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Dec. 2010.
Council, the National Research, and evaluators agreed that the invention. "Home Page - Polygraph." University of Mary Washington. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2010.
"ILPE: FAQs - polygraph, lie detector, polygraph examiner, Europe, Ukraine." International League of Polygraph Examiners. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Dec. 2010.
"Lies!, Lies!! Lies!!!The Psychology of Deceit." Questia School - The Online Library for Students and Educators. N.p., nmethod, this, and the robust will escape. "Origin of the Modern Polygraph." University of Mary Washington. N.p., n.d.
Web. 5 Dec. 2010.
"The Lie Detector." American Decades. 2001. Encyclopedia.com. 07 Dec. 2010 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.
Invention of Post-it notes- Kelly Riebesell
Introduction
Post-it notes are now used as one of the most common office supplies. In the beginning, there was only one size and one color. The now come in larger and smaller sizes and a variety of different colors, and are commonly used among people of all ages.
Discovery
Post-it notes are not something someone came up with an idea of, and over time invented it. In 1970, a man named Spencer Silver had been working in the 3M research laboratories in hopes of finding a strong adhesive. He did develop a new adhesive, but it was not very strong. It could stick to objects, but easily be lifted off. No one knew what to do with the adhesive he had developed, but Silver did not discard it.
Then four years later, another 3M researcher named Arthur Fry was singing in the church choir and had been using markers to hold his place in the hymnal. He was getting very annoyed because the markers kept falling out. Luckily, he remembered the adhesive Silver had come up with and used it to coat the caps of the makers to hold his place. It worked, and he could easily take the markers out when he needed to use them. In 1980, 3M began distributing Post-it notes nation-wide.
Biogragrphy
Arthur Fry was born August 19, 1931. He is a retired United States scientist and inventor and is most credited for being the co-creator of Post-it notes, along with the inventor of the adhesive, Spencer Silver.
Fry was still enrolled in under-graduate school school when he took a job at 3M as a new product development researcher in 1953. He worked in new product development throughout his career at 3M until his retirement in the early 1990s.
Along with Arthur Fry was the inventor of the adhesive, Spencer Silver. He is an american chemist, born in San Antonio in 1941. Silver's name is now on over 20 US patents, but his most significant invention was not an immediate success. He had invented the adhesive, that 4 years later he became famous for when Arthur Fry made use of it in inventing the Post-it note.
Impact on the World
It is evident that Post-it notes have made a large impact on the world because if you look in just about any office or work place, you will most likely see them on a desk or in a drawer. the have become very helpful and efficient little tools for people, and they weren't even an intentional invention! Post-it notes promote a longer remembrance of things because people can write little notes or ideas down and stick them anywhere. They also are great for people to use to organize things that they can stick anywhere or to use to mark a place of somewhere someone has left off.
Journal Article Review
This journal article states that in the 1970's Arthur Fry invented the most significant office supply product since the paperclip, the Post-it note. However, he could not have created this without the previous invention of his colleague, Spencer Silver. The adhesive invented by Spencer Silver had been strong enough to hold papers together but weak enough to allow the papers to be pulled apart again without being torn. The adhesive could also be used over and over again. Silver wanted to do something with his new invention, but he didn't know what. He wanted to market it as a spray or a surface for bulletin boards, where temporary notices or reminders could be posted and then taken down later. These attempts were not a success, but luckily Silver did not discard his new adhesive because later it was put to work by the inventor of Post-it notes, Arthur Fry.
Works Cited
"Arthur Fry." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Fry>.
Pdfstoc.com | Hopefully You Can Find It Here.. Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://www.pdfstoc.com/posts/download/288>.
"Post-it Note History - Invention of Post-it Notes." The Great Idea Finder - Celebrating the Spirit of Innovation. Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/postit.htm>.
"Spencer Silver." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 12 Dec. 2010. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Silver>.
The Invention of the Automobile
The Invention of the Automobile
By: Gus Joseph
1. INTRODUCTION
The word “Auto-mobile” literally means “self movable”. The concept is self-explanatory and genius at the same time. The car has had an immense influence on humankind. First sketches and attempts at such a machine were made as far back as 1672, and have been improved ever since. Nowadays, we have things like hybrids and RVs and Smart cars, and they’re all just upgraded versions of a basic idea. Automobiles have come a very, very long way.
2. INVENTION
a. STEAM POWERED VEHICLES
There are many, many accounts of inventors creating machines capable of transporting humans. Supposedly, a man named Father Ferdinand Verbiest invented the first automobile around 1672. It was a steam-powered machine created as a toy for the Chinese Emperor, Chien Lung. Unfortunately, there is no record of the actual vehicle, only the event. The first recorded automobile was invented by a man named Nicholas Joseph Cugnot. Cugnot’s contraption weighed a total of 8,000 pounds and traveled at a whopping 2 miles per hour. For this reason, Cugnot’s machine was used to transport large cargo, not human beings. These inventions were the beginnings of the train.
The First Steam-Powered Vehicle
b. INTERNAL COMBUSTION VEHICLES
The first working automobile was invented in 1860 by a man named Etienne Lenoir in France. The machine had an impressive one-half of a horsepower, but was impractical and was never popular. In 1862, a man named Alphonse Bear de Rochas made a slight tweak to Lenoir’s initial invention. He figured out how to send gas into a cylinder, compressing it, igniting it, and exhausting the waste, which is the process that automobiles today use. The first gas-powered automobile in America was built by Charles and Frank Duryea. The vehicle was made of a horse drawn buggy with a 4 horsepower engine. The first run on public roads was September 21, 1893.
Many other innovations, such as using a hot tube ignition system, helped the car become a more practical form of transportation, by making it faster and have more horsepower. Also, better steering mechanisms were invented and the frame of the car was improved. These inventions laid the foundation for the most used device on earth.
3. BIOGRAPHY OF INFLUENCIAL INVENTOR
One of the most important people in the history of the car was Henry Ford. Henry Ford was the father of the Model T and the genius behind the assembly line. These two inventions undoubtedly changed the automobile industry forever. Henry Ford was born on July 30th, 1863 in Dearborn Michigan. His parents were farmers and he lived on a small farm with his family. His father was from Ireland, whereas his mother was from Michigan. He went into engineering in 1891, and he invented a self-propelled vehicle he called “The Ford Quadricycle”. In the next few years, he made many different versions of the Quadricycle with the help of Thomas Edison. Eventually, in 1889, he resigned from his work at the Edison Illuminating Company in order to start his own business. On August 5th, 1899, he founded the Detroit Automobile Company, where Ford hoped he would be able to produce his automobiles. Unfortunately, the company was unsuccessful and dissolved in 1901. But, soon after the failure of his first company, he and C. Harold Wills built and raced a 26 horsepower car. This caused previous stockholders in the Detroit Automobile Company to give Ford another shot, and the Henry Ford Company was born. But, Ford left that company when a man named Henry M. Leland was hired. The name of the company was changed to the Cadillac Automobile Company.
Soon after his departure from the Henry Ford Company, Ford and Alexander Y. Malcomson, a coal dealer, became friends and the duo created “Ford and Malcomson, Ltd.” to build cars. They then got the Dodge Brothers on board with the company and the company was reincorporated as the Ford Motor Company.
5 years after the creation of the Ford Motor Company, the Model T was released. Its newest features were the steering wheel on the left and that the entire engine and transmission were both enclosed. The car cost 825 dollars. It was so inexpensive that most American drivers knew how to drive one by the 1920s.
With the new demand for Model T’s, Ford needed to come up with a cheap and productive way of building his vehicles. He came up with the idea of a conveyor belt that moved separate pieces of the vehicle down past a row of employees, allowing them to work on them as they passed by. By doing this, productivity skyrocketed and the Ford Motor Company flew to the top of the industry. By inventing these two different things, he had left a very impressive mark on the world.
The Model T
4. IMPACT ON THE WORLD
Try to imagine a world without cars. Impossible, isn’t it? I couldn’t imagine a world where the streets were quiet, transportation was long and tedious, and NASCAR didn’t exist. The invention of the car is the greatest invention since the invention of the wheel. Try to imagine driving to school in a horse drawn carriage, or even walking! Imagine how much longer it would take to get from one place to another. The car has completely changed how the world works, which is why the automobile is the most important and world changing invention of all time.
5. JOURNAL ARTICLE REVIEW
Hybrid Cars Now, Fuel Cell Cars Later
In this journal article, the author is comparing the efficiency of hybrid cars vs. fuel cell cars, with the control being typical internal combustion engines. There is a chart showing the three different cars and how much energy is needed to do the same thing, and the car running on fuel cells needs slightly less energy than the hybrid car to move. But, both the hybrid and the fuel cell car need significantly less energy than the typical internal combustion car. The goal of this journal is to try to help make a more fuel efficient vehicle that reduce carbon dioxide emissions as well as America’s dependence on oil. The author suggests hydrogen as an alternative, which would power the fuel cell cars. Unfortunately, fuel cell technology isn’t available yet, so hybrid cars are our best bet as of today.
6. SOURCES
The First Car – A History of the Automobile. http://www.ausbcomp.com/~bbott/cars/carhist.htm. Retrieved December 12, 2010.
The History of the Automobile. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_automobile. Retrieved December 12, 2010.
Henry Ford. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_ford. Retrieved December 12, 2010.
Demirdoven, Nurettin. (2004). Hybrid Cars Now, Fuel Cell Cars Later. http://dancingflames.org/dancingflames/EnvSci/Articles/EnvScipdffiles/hybrids/HybridCars_FuelCell%20Cars.pdf. Retrieved December 12, 2010.
Shelby Carbary
Chemotherapy
Introduction:
It is used widely today. It has saved many peoples lives and will save many more. Chemotherapy as been used widely to treat people with severe illnesses, specifically cancer patients. Designed to kill cells, it is guaranteed to have positive effects against cancerous tumors and microorganisms. Based on reports, Alfred Gilman and Louis S. Goodman invented this kind of treatment. Chemotherapy has been helping people for years overcome serious illness.
Discovery:
In the 1940’s, the U.S Department of Defense hired Alfred Gilman and Louis S. Goodman to conduct research on the use of nitrogen mustard as therapeutic agent. They found that the chemical warfare agent could actually treat lymphoma. Nitrogen mustards cause mutations in the genetic material of cells, thereby disrupting mitosis, or cell division. Cancer and proliferating tumors are most sensitive. After the discovery by Gilman and Goodman, Eli Lilly discovered the effectiveness of Madagascar periwinkle in blocking tumor cell proliferation. In 1965, the effectiveness of combination chemotherapy as cancer treatment was discovered. Because the chemotherapy stops the rapid division of cells hair loss, inflammation of the lining of the digestive tract, and decreased production of blood cells are common side effects. Chemotherapy consist of many different drugs that can be administered based on your individual case. For example, cyclophosphamide is use for lymphoma, breast cancer, and ovarian carcinoma where as sorafinib is used for advanced kidney cancer.
Biography:
Alfred Gilman born February 5, 1908, was an American pharmacologist at Yale University, School of Medicine, later, at Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons and Albert Einstein College of Medicine. He published the textbook The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics with his colleague Louis S. Goodman in 1941. He was a member of U.S. National Academy of Science. His father owned a music store in Bridgeport, Connecticut, and he could play almost any musical instrument. Unlike his father, however, Alfred Gilman turned to science, receiving his Ph.D. in Physiological Chemistry from Yale in 1931 for "Chemical and Physiological Investigations on Canine Gastric Secretion". He then joined the faculty of the Department of Pharmacology at the Yale Medical School, where he and Louis S. Goodman, a young M.D., became colleagues and close friends. He is father of Alfred G. Gilman, Nobel winning pharmacologist.
Impact on Humanity:
If it weren’t for chemotherapy many people would not be able to overcome cancer. Over ten million people have survived cancer. Breakthroughs in medicine have allowed chemotherapy to help fight against many types of cancer not just one. Although there are many side effects that come out of chemotherapy it is a live saving treatment.
Journal Article: Dilemmas in managing patients with cancer of unknown primary.
Cancer of unknown primary(CUP) is one of the ten most common cancer diagnoses in the UK. CUP is diagnosed when the primary source of the cancer can not be detected. This leaves it difficult to treat the cancer because of the unknown location. Patients have to go through many difficult test to try and determine the location and sometimes will be provided with no answer as to where the cancer is coming from. One reason for not being able to locate the primary source could be that the secondary sources have grown and spread too quickly while the primary source as stayed small leaving it hard to find on scans. Another reason could be the immune system may have destroyed the primary after it has spread. Being diagnosed with CUP can be very emotionally and financially taxing. You have to go through intensive testing and spend lots of money doing so. Leaving everyone including the doctor, family, and patient emotionally and financially burdened.
Resources:
http://www.whoinventedit.net/who-invented-chemotherapy.html
http://www.questia.com/library/encyclopedia/nitrogen_mustard.jsp
http://www.caring4cancer.com/go/cancer/treatment/chemotherapy/common-chemotherapy-drugs-and-side-effects.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_G._Gilman
http://www.cupfoundjo.org/research_and_resources/CNP%20article%20draft.pdf
Chemotherapy
Introduction:
It is used widely today. It has saved many peoples lives and will save many more. Chemotherapy as been used widely to treat people with severe illnesses, specifically cancer patients. Designed to kill cells, it is guaranteed to have positive effects against cancerous tumors and microorganisms. Based on reports, Alfred Gilman and Louis S. Goodman invented this kind of treatment. Chemotherapy has been helping people for years overcome serious illness.
Discovery:
In the 1940’s, the U.S Department of Defense hired Alfred Gilman and Louis S. Goodman to conduct research on the use of nitrogen mustard as therapeutic agent. They found that the chemical warfare agent could actually treat lymphoma. Nitrogen mustards cause mutations in the genetic material of cells, thereby disrupting mitosis, or cell division. Cancer and proliferating tumors are most sensitive. After the discovery by Gilman and Goodman, Eli Lilly discovered the effectiveness of Madagascar periwinkle in blocking tumor cell proliferation. In 1965, the effectiveness of combination chemotherapy as cancer treatment was discovered. Because the chemotherapy stops the rapid division of cells hair loss, inflammation of the lining of the digestive tract, and decreased production of blood cells are common side effects. Chemotherapy consist of many different drugs that can be administered based on your individual case. For example, cyclophosphamide is use for lymphoma, breast cancer, and ovarian carcinoma where as sorafinib is used for advanced kidney cancer.
Biography:
Alfred Gilman born February 5, 1908, was an American pharmacologist at Yale University, School of Medicine, later, at Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons and Albert Einstein College of Medicine. He published the textbook The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics with his colleague Louis S. Goodman in 1941. He was a member of U.S. National Academy of Science. His father owned a music store in Bridgeport, Connecticut, and he could play almost any musical instrument. Unlike his father, however, Alfred Gilman turned to science, receiving his Ph.D. in Physiological Chemistry from Yale in 1931 for "Chemical and Physiological Investigations on Canine Gastric Secretion". He then joined the faculty of the Department of Pharmacology at the Yale Medical School, where he and Louis S. Goodman, a young M.D., became colleagues and close friends. He is father of Alfred G. Gilman, Nobel winning pharmacologist.
Impact on Humanity:
If it weren’t for chemotherapy many people would not be able to overcome cancer. Over ten million people have survived cancer. Breakthroughs in medicine have allowed chemotherapy to help fight against many types of cancer not just one. Although there are many side effects that come out of chemotherapy it is a live saving treatment.
Journal Article: Dilemmas in managing patients with cancer of unknown primary.
Cancer of unknown primary(CUP) is one of the ten most common cancer diagnoses in the UK. CUP is diagnosed when the primary source of the cancer can not be detected. This leaves it difficult to treat the cancer because of the unknown location. Patients have to go through many difficult test to try and determine the location and sometimes will be provided with no answer as to where the cancer is coming from. One reason for not being able to locate the primary source could be that the secondary sources have grown and spread too quickly while the primary source as stayed small leaving it hard to find on scans. Another reason could be the immune system may have destroyed the primary after it has spread. Being diagnosed with CUP can be very emotionally and financially taxing. You have to go through intensive testing and spend lots of money doing so. Leaving everyone including the doctor, family, and patient emotionally and financially burdened.
Resources:
http://www.whoinventedit.net/who-invented-chemotherapy.html
http://www.questia.com/library/encyclopedia/nitrogen_mustard.jsp
http://www.caring4cancer.com/go/cancer/treatment/chemotherapy/common-chemotherapy-drugs-and-side-effects.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_G._Gilman
http://www.cupfoundjo.org/research_and_resources/CNP%20article%20draft.pdf
Synesthesia
By Elizabeth Feins
Figure 1 – Location of the senses in the human brain
. I. Introduction
‘Until very recent years, it was supposed by philosophers that there was a typical human mind which all individual minds were like…Lately however, a mass of revelations have poured in which make us see how false a view this is.’
-William James, 1890
One of the chief purposes of the human brain is to create a sensory reality. Most people possess five senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. The brain organizes the sights, sounds, tastes, scents, and textures we encounter, separating each sense so that we can clearly tell the difference between something we see and something we hear, or something we touch and something we taste. In some individuals, however, the brain arranges the senses in a very different manner. This condition, called synesthesia, causes people to involuntarily combine two or more senses. Someone with synesthesia might be able to see sound, for example, or he might be able to taste shapes. He might have a three-dimensional view of time, or, in rare cases, he might associate color with temperature. There are nineteen specific types of synesthesia, and it is estimated that about 1 in 2,000 people have the condition. However, this number may not be accurate; there are probably many people who have the condition, but don’t realize that it’s abnormal.
II. Background
Figure 1 – Location of the senses in the human brain
As seen in Figure 1, the human brain organizes the senses into regions. Synesthesia results when the brain “cross-wires” the senses, causing synapses that normally are contained in one particular area to cross to another sensory system. For example, in a synthetic person, the nerve cells that carry sound may end up in both the hearing and vision parts of the brain. Other types on synesthesia include combining taste with touch, scent with sight, and assigning personalities to different letters of the alphabet.
Synesthesia tends to be a heredity condition, and is most commonly found in women. People with synesthesia often become musicians, poets, artists, or authors; being involved with creative arts gives them a chance to express the way they experience life.
Figure 2 – Bouba and Kiki
According to some scientists, everyone experiences these “crossed connections” when they are born; most infants react to sensory stimuli in ways that suggest synesthesia. This realization led to the hypothesis that young children have crossed connections, and as their brains develop further they lose their synesthesia. Adult synesthetes are simply individuals who retained the crossed connections.
However, 98% of adults still possess a miniscule amount of synesthesia, according to a study created by Wolfgang Kohler. Look at Figure 3, and decide which shape should be named Bouba, and which should be named Kiki. 98% of the people asked that question answer it the same way: the sharp, angular shape is Kiki, and the rounded blob is called Bouba. This is probably because the curves of rounded shape metaphorically mimic the gentle waves of the sound 'bouba.' In contrast, the sharp emphasis on the sound ‘kiki’ is represented by the jagged edges of the angular shape. Without even thinking about it, our brains combine sound and shape, showing minor symptoms of synesthesia.
Figure 3 – A common Synesthesia test
There are numerous ways to determine whether or not an individual has synesthesia. One of them, as seen in Figure 3, tests for the most common type of synesthesia: grapheme-color, in which people see letters and numbers in color. To a non-synesthete, Figure 3 looks like the image on the left: a jumble of black numbers. To someone with grapheme-color synesthesia, however, it looks like the image on the right; because the numbers are two different colors, it’s quite easy to differentiate between the fives and the twos.
People with grapheme-color synesthesia tend to remember people by their colors, rather than by name. If the name Laura appears purple, for example, a synesthete will often remember that her name is purple instead of recalling that her name is Laura.
III. Biography of Investigator
Oliver Sacks, author of Musicophilia, is a British neurologist. Born in London in 1933, Sacks was surrounded by medical scientists from a young age; his mother was a surgeon, and his father worked as a general practitioner. He succeeded in earning a medical degree at Oxford and moved to New York in 1965 to study the nervous system. Sacks’ main area of interest is in mental conditions, including Tourette’s syndrome, autism, phantom limb syndrome, schizophrenia, retardation, Alzheimer’s disease, and synesthesia. In addition to studying medicine, Oliver Sacks writes books pertaining to his discoveries—he received Lewis Thomas Prize by Rockefeller University in 2002, which recognizes the scientist as the “poet laureate of medicine.” Published in 2007, one of his books, Musicophilia: Tales of Music and the Brain, consists of interviews and discoveries the scientist collected regarding synesthesia.
IV. Impact on the World
The discovery and investigation of synesthesia raises deep questions and theories about truth and perception. Once someone is aware of synesthesia, he’ll begin to question his world. What if he’s the only one who hears that sound? What if no one else experiences that taste? What if he perceives that color differently than the person sitting next to him? According to the Uninhibited Natural State theory, everyone is synesthetic in reality, but most of us are not consciously aware of it. This type of thinking leads to philosophical discussions about truth. If the worlds on a page seem black-and-white to you, but multi-colored to someone else, then what is the true color of the ink? Knowledge of synesthesia can result in open-mindedness and tolerance when faced with disagreements, not just over the color of a word, but over more important matters, as well. After all, everyone sees the world differently, not just synesthetes.
V. Journal Article Review: “Synæsthesia and the Brain”
Most cases of synesthesia are idiopathic, or developmental. This means that the person experiencing the condition has had it for as long as they can remember. In some cases, however, synesthesia can be acquired in non-idiopathic ways. Seizures, hallucinogenic drug use, brain damage, and spinal cord injuries can result in synesthesia. Neuron degeneration, the loss of certain neurons that make up nerves, can also induce synesthesia; concussions may result in temporary sensory confusion, as well. As for idiopathic synesthesia, not much is known other than the fact that it seems to run in families. Studies show that most infants possess synesthesia, and as the brain develops it eliminates the sensory confusion; some theories suggest that everyone possesses some form of synesthesia throughout their entire lives, but most people aren’t completely aware of it.
Works Cited
"Biography Oliver Sacks, M.D., Physician, Author, Neurologist." Oliver Sacks, M.D., Physician, Author, Neurologist Official Website Musicophilia, Awakenings, The Man Who Mistook His Wife For A Hat. 2010. Web. 12 Dec. 2010.
Booth, Shannon. "Synaesthesia and the Brain." Macalester College: Private Liberal Arts College. Web. 12 Dec. 2010.
Jensen, Amber. "Synesthesia." Lethbridge Undergraduate Research Journal. 2007. Web. 12 Dec. 2010.
"Neuroscience for Kids - Synesthesia." UW Faculty Web Server. Web. 12 Dec. 2010.
"Synesthesia Links and References." ./mediateletipos))). Web. 12 Dec. 2010.
"Synesthesia." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 7 Dec. 2010. Web. 12 Dec. 2010.
Tarko, Vlad. "Synaesthesia: Seeing Sounds, Tasting Shapes - This Eerie Phenomenon, Long Regarded as a Mere Curiosity, Might Offer a Window into the Nature of Thought - Softpedia." Latest News - Softpedia. 4 Jan. 2006. Web. 12 Dec. 2010.
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