MSG & Umami- by Ali Hunt

Figure 1- The Umami Taste Bud

Introduction:

Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) is an amino acid. It is a sodium salt of a glutamic acid. It is marketed as a food additive and flavoring enhancer, commonly found in processed foods such as potato chips, dry soups, spice mixes, and Chinese restaurants. MSG has a meaty, “broth-y” like taste that is different from any other food group. MSG enhances the flavors of the foods that it is commonly added to. MSG is one of the most commonly known food items in the umami food groups.

Umami:

Humans have five categories of taste: bitter, salty, sweet, sour... and umami? Umami (savory flavor) was founded in 1908 by Japanese scientist Kikinadue Ikeda. Ikeda was tasting his native seaweed dish, kombu. He noticed that the kombu had a different, distinct taste that wasn’t salty, sweet, sour, or bitter. In 1913, Shintaro Kodama, found that dried bonito flakes also had the “umami” flavor. In 1957, scientist Akira Kuninaka discovered that

the ribonucleotide GMP (found in shiitake mushrooms) also had the umami flavoring. But where was this mysterious taste coming from? Kuninaka kept researching and found that the umami taste was present when items with gluatamate were combined with items containing ribonucleotides (for example: parmesan cheese and tomato sauce combined).

MSG & Health:

There is speculation about the use of MSG. M

SG is a nuerotoxin, which has an effect on the brain and nervous system from it’s first entry. It leaves us filling hungry and empty within an hour of consuming it (hence why many people full hungry shorty after eating Chinese food- one of MSG’s greatest known victims). MSG (and umami in general)increases salivation, which means it can seem “addictive” to some people. In addition to that, one’s first encounter with the umami substance is during th

e breastfeeding stage (umami is found breast milk- another “addictive” characteristic.)

Impact on World:

MSG is said to be slowly poisoning America. MSG is added to almost every food (kraft, top ramen, lays, doritos, hostess, and especially low fat, low card, or low sugar items because it is a flavor additive!). MSG was tested on lab rats, and it tripled the amount of insulin that the rat’s took in- significantly increasing the risk for diabetes and obesity. MSG’s addictive “umami” qualities make it literally “nicotine for food”. A chemical in MSG, Adrenalectomy stops serotonin production in brain, so the signal that you are full isn’t sent. There is also no FDA limit on how much MSG can be added to food.

Journal Article:

Andrew Weil, M.D.

http://www.drweil.com/drw/u/QAA400377/Umami-Whats-That-Great-Taste.html

Figure 2- MSG

Chemically, umami differs in structure from other foods because it has a type of amino acid called a gluamate. Anchovies, tomato paste, mushrooms, and asparagus have the umami quality in addition to MSG. These food items bring a savory taste to each dish. Although adding MSG for flavor can decrease salt and sugar content, the MSG has a bad rep for causing headaches and stomachaches. Eating MSG on an empty stomach can cause numbness, dizziness, rapid heartbeat, drowsiness, and weakness. Some people even have allergic reactions to MSG in food.

Bibliography

Moss, M. (2007, November 12). Monosodium glutamate (msg) - The Addiction You Never Knew You Had. Retrieved from http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/442155/monosodium_glutamate_msg_the_addiction.htm

MSG - Slowly Poisoning America. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.rense.com/general52/msg.htm

(n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.msreversed.com/picts/MSG_2.jpg (Figure 2)

(n.d.). Retrieved from https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeyhWu_ZDUnyC3Jd2mOXsq1ZGLYYzabKGF_tvE4pYgddfxwLcHSG-waufzEVJcMcBfmcq3Wz5lbPUtw7pRq2Acne8msaUzG35zStoDglBpQHXPrb0lX_hu8it1y0Icwsd7sBdrU1G0pKcw/s1600/nature05401-f1.2.jp (Figure 1)

The Truth About MSG. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.truthinlabeling.org/

Weil, A. (2008, March 27). Umami- Whats That Great Taste? . Retrieved from http://www.drweil.com/drw/u/QAA400377/Umami-Whats- That-Great-Taste.html

The History of the Telephone

The History of the Telephone

By: Gus Joseph

I. Intro

The invention of the telephone has no doubt revolutionized the way people communicate nowadays. With the push of a button, you can communicate with somebody on the complete other side of the world. The man credited with the invention of the telephone was Alexander Graham Bell, who patented the machine on February 14^th, 1876. The telephone is one of the most used inventions every day, along with the car and the computer.

II. Invention

The telephone has come a long way from its first model made in 1876. A telephone is a device that converts sounds into electrical pulses and frequencies and then transmits them to another device, which then “translates” the pulses back into distinguishable sounds. A man named Michael Faraday thought of the idea that vibrations of metal could be converted into electrical pulses, which served as the foundation on which the telephone was made. The first working telephones were invented by two men, Alexander Graham Bell and Elisha Gray, who worked completely independent from each other and just happened to create the same invention in almost the exact same time period. In fact, both men patented the telephone on the EXACT SAME DAY, and Graham Bell’s patent was filed a mere 2 hours before Gray’s.

The First Telephone

Because of this, Graham Bell was credited for the invention. The first audible sentence that was sent over a telephone was Graham Bell calling his assistant in another room. He said “Come here, Watson, I want to see you”, and the first telephone call was made. The first phone had a stationary speaker, where you would talk, and a receiver, which was detachable and you would hold up to your ear to listen. Since then, the telephone has gotten some major upgrades, and have definitely evolved a lot over the years.

III. Biography of Inventor

Alexander Graham Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland on March 3^rd, 1847. He had 2 brothers, one older and one younger. He was very intelligent as a child and built a wheat de-husking machine when he was only 12 years old. As he grew up he began to experiment with sound and speech, and was even able to manipulate his dog’s vocal cords and mouth to make it sound like he was speaking. He eventually became a professor of Vocal Physiology at Boston University, but then soon gave it up to focus his works on experiments and tests with sound. He also began to study vibrations of sound waves and experimented with a phonautograph, a machine that drew shapes to match sound waves. He also designed prototype telephones that could transmit and convert sounds, but none of which was audible. But soon, that all changed on March 10^th, 1876, when the first audible telephone call was made, and Graham Bell’s hard work paid off. On that day, he invented the cornerstone of modern communication. Then in 1878, he created the Bell Telephone Company, which then went on to become The American Telephone and Telegraph company, or more commonly known in the world today, AT&T. AT&T is still one of the leading phone providers in the world today.

IV. Impact on the World

The impact of the telephone in modern society is one of the biggest in history. Being able to dial a phone number and almost instantaneously be connected with that person is still one of the most impressive technologies today. Now, telephones have been upgraded immensely, and are now really more like small computers than telephones. The upgrades the telephone has undergone have been huge, but without Graham Bell’s invention, none of this would’ve been possible. Almost every person on the earth has a phone and is now something that nobody can live without.

V. Journal Article Review

The Association Between Cellular Telephone Calls and Motor Vehicle Collisions

The journal article I decided to review was one about the association between using a cell phone while driving and getting in collisions. The people doing the test gathered up the billing records of 699 people who had been involved in car crashes and compared the time of collision to the time their cell phone was being used. For 231 of these people, the time of collision matched exactly to the time their phone was being used. This test proves that texting while driving increases the risk of a car accident greatly, especially when holding the phone in your hand. People using hands-free headsets had a much lower percentage of collisions, but were still more dangerous than not talking on the phone at all. Unfortunately, this study didn’t study the correlation between texting while driving and car crashes, because this study was taken in 1996, much before texting became popular. Because of this study, we can definitely associate talking on the phone while driving and getting into car crashes.

Bibliography

Journal Article

http://www.chescrosbie.com/library/Association%20between%20Cellular-Telephone%20Calls%20and%20Motor%20Vehicle%20Collisons.pdf

http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/telephone.htm

http://www.notablebiographies.com/Ba-Be/Bell-Alexander-Graham.html

Insulin by Morgan Levy

[Glitterfy.com - *Glitter Words*]
Insulin is a hormone that regulates the carbohydrate and fat in the body. It is produced in the pancreas, which is an organ that sits behind the stomach. Without insulin, you can actually eat a lot of food and be in a state of starvation. This is because your cells cannot access the calories contained in the glucose without insulin. This is the problem that people with diabetes have. People with diabetes now receive some outside source of insulin, but it wasn’t always that way. Insulin wasn’t discovered until the 1920’s.

[Glitterfy.com - *Glitter Words*]
Insulin was discovered by Dr. Fredrick Banting when he hoped to make an antidiabetic extract. Banting began to perform experiments. He worked with medical student, Charles Best. Their first experiment consisted of tying a string around the pancreas of a dog. This caused the pancreas’ digestive cells to deteriorate and be absorbed into the immune system. What was left behind was thousands of islets. Banting and best then isolated the extracts from the islets and produced isletin. What they called isletin became known as insulin. They then began testing isletin on dogs with diabetes. The dogs became stronger and healthier. After many weeks of being injected with the isletin, the dogs actually began to appear free of symptoms of diabetes. Banting and Best then began to experiment on the pancreas of a cow. In 1921 Bertram Collip joined the team and tried to purify the isletin and find a correct dosage in order for it to be used on humans. In January 1922 in Toronto, Canada, Leonard Thompson, a 14-year-old boy with diabetes who was dying in Toranto Hospital, was chosen as the first person to receive insulin. Leonard quickly regained strength and appetite.


[Glitterfy.com - *Glitter Words*]
Fredrick Banting was born on November 14, 1891 in Ontario, Canada. He went to the University of Toronto, where he received his Medical Bachelor degree. He then worked in the Canadian Army Medical Corps during World War I in France. In 1919 he returned to Canada where he began working with medical student, Charles Best. After the first successful injection of insulin in 1922, he received the Nobel Prize of medicine. Banting Worked again in World War II and was killed In February 1941, in an air disaster in Newfoundland.


[Glitterfy.com - *Glitter Words*]
Banting’s achievements are world-renowned because he saved so many lives. The discovery of insulin provided a treatment for all patients with diabetes. Before insulin, diabetes patients lived at most 1-2 years before dying. Now, people with diabetes can live a pretty normal life, as long as they can get insulin.


[Glitterfy.com - *Glitter Words*]
Insulin resistance, characterized by reduced responsiveness to normal circulating concentrations of insulin, is common in most patients with type 2 diabetes. If you have insulin resistance, your body doesn’t respond to insulin, and therefore does not receive blood sugar The resistance of two types of insulin known as peripheral and hepatic insulin suggests that enhanced insulin might be an effective approach to diabetes. New classes of drugs, called Thiazolidinediones are designed to enhance the actions of insulin. This reduces the chance of insulin resistance. After many tests, these drugs have demonstrated an effective new treatment. Although he mechanics of the drug are unknown; it is known that transcriptional changes in the cells produce this enhanced insulin.
http://diabetes.diabetesjournals.org/content/45/12/1661.abstract



[Glitterfy.com - *Glitter Words*]
http://nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/insulin/discovery-insulin.html
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/info/diabetes/discoveryofinsulin.php
http://www.endocrineweb.com/conditions/diabetes/diabetes-what-insulin
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/histday/insulin/impact.html http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1923/banting-bio.html

Invention/Creation of American Sign Language:

Introduction:

Deaf people have always existed but they have not always had means of communication. Dr. Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet travelled to France and investigated French Sign Language in 1755 and brought it back to America and combined the signs that Americans were already used in America to create a formal American Sign Language.


Invention/Creation:


1700’s: Charles-Michel de l’Epee: Published the manual alphabet

1755: Abbe de l’Epee: Founded the first deaf school in Paris.

1817: Clerc (Abbe graduate) and Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet: Founded the American School for the Deaf (Connecticut)

1856: Edward Miner Gallaudet: Founded the school for Deaf in Washington DC.

1864: Gallaudet University: The only University for deaf people in the world that is liberal arts


Biography: Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet!

Thomas was born in Pennsylvania. He has a bachelors degree from Yale (1805). He graduated at age 17.He then got his masters from Yale also (1808). He was a preacher but was planning on becoming a minister but then he met Alice Cogswell a deaf 9 year old. Thomas managed to communicate with her using a stick and scrapping things in the dirt. Then Dr. Cogswell (the girls father) asked Thomas to join him to Europe to study methods of teaching the deaf. He learned Manual Communication from Laurent Clerc and Jean Massieu and brought that back to America with him. Thomas's father was George Washington's personal secretary when the office of the president was in Philadelphia. Thomas's Son Edward Miner founded Gallaudet University in Washington DC.


Impact on the World/Humanity:

Not every deaf person knows sign language. But sign language has impacted the deaf culture and the hearing culture so much that when we now say "that person is deaf" we assume that they know sign language. Sign Language gave deaf people the ability to communicate.

Journal Article:

My journal Article was on the possibility of deafness being inherited. It explained that there is a gene that regulates the production of proteins in the fetus to form channels between adjacent cells. The mutations that occur in the Cochlea will most likely result in deafness.

VIDEO ON THE ABC'S

Work Sited:

Butterworth, R. R., & Flodin, M. (n.d.). American Sign Language History. University of Illinois at Chicago - UIC. Retrieved February 17, 2011, from http://www2.uic.edu/stud_orgs/cultures/daa/ASLHistory.html

Hearing loss - MayoClinic.com. (n.d.). Mayo Clinic. Retrieved February 14, 2011, from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hearing-loss/DS00172

History of American Sign Language . (n.d.). Start American Sign Language (ASL) . Retrieved February 16, 2011, from http://www.start-american-sign-language.com/history-of-american-sign-language.html

The Ideology of Normalcy: The Ethics of Difference by Tom Koch. (n.d.). Questia School - The Online Library for Students and Educators. Retrieved February 11, 2011, from http://www.questiaschool.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5011971465

Smartwater by Elizabeth Feins

I. Intro

There are over 100 brands of bottled water in the world. Some come from springs, others are fortified with vitamins, and a few add artificial ingredients for modest flavoring. Smartwater, however, insists its liquid is the healthiest bottled water to date. Created by Glacéau, Smartwater is vapor distilled and supplemented with electrolytes. This ensures a healthier drinking experience, as well as faster hydration.

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II. Background and Discovery

Fig 1: The Water Cycle

Invented in 1999, Smartwater is created by mimicking the earth’s water cycle (Fig 1). During this cycle, water droplets from oceans, rivers, and lakes evaporate into a gas and rise into the sky, leaving behind salt, dirt, and everything else that made it unfit to drink. The water vapor then condenses, forming clouds, and rains back down to earth. However, as it falls to the ground, it must pass through various pollutants emitted by cars, trains, airplanes, factories, etc. By the time it actually lands, a drop of water contains an enormous amount of pollution. 97% of the water found on earth is salty; 2% is trapped in glaciers and icecaps. Only 1% of all the water on earth is fresh, and every drop of it became contaminated when it fell to earth. Smartwater eliminates this contamination by vapor distillation, a method of purification that imitates the water cycle without adding the pollution.

In addition to purifying the water, Smartwater is also enhanced with electrolytes—liquid substances that, among other things, aid various bodily processes. Common electrolytes in the human body include sodium, potassium, magnesium, chloride, and calcium. A major function of the electrolyte is maintaining the balance of fluids in the body. When you sweat, you lose electrolytes; this causes fluid levels to become unbalanced and potentially leads to dehydration. By adding electrolytes, Smartwater reduces the risk of dehydration.

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III. Biography of Investigator

J. Darius Bikoff, creator of Smartwater

J. Darius Bikoff grew up surrounded by beverages; his father owned a business that sold aluminum to soda companies to make cans for their drinks. Bikoff began working for the company when he was eleven, answering phones and doing various jobs, but by the time he was in college he was contacting European businessmen overseas to negotiate products. Immediately after graduating from college, Bikoff took over the company altogether. Under his instruction, the business soared, making over $300 million per year.

In 1993, a possible contamination of tap-water was reported in Bikoff’s neighborhood in New York City. To avoid the health risk, Bikoff decided to buy a large stockpile of bottled water. The caps on the bottles irritated him greatly. Bikoff was an avid cyclist, and it was difficult to unscrew the cap while riding a bike. In 1994, he invented the push-pull cap that made it easier to take a drink while exercising. The cap became extremely popular, and many other bottled water companies adopted the design.

The exercise enthusiasm also led Bikoff to create Smartwater. He knew that excessive exercise caused dehydration, but he was also aware that drinking too much mineral water could be dangerous—the minerals found in water are non-organic, and therefore a burden to the body. So Bikoff created water that did include organic substances: electrolytes that replaced the ones lost through exercise.

In addition to Smartwater, J. Darius Bikoff invented Vitaminwater and Fruit-Infused Water, which followed the same principle as Smartwater: H2O infused with organic, healthy substances.

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IV. Impact on Humanity

Action for Healthy Kids

Smartwater is one of the most popular brands of water in existence. The eye-catching labels explain the exact method by which Smartwater is purified, educating consumers about health and exercise. People swear they can taste the difference between Smartwater and other brands of bottled water; one woman tried watering her plant with it, and found that it made the flower bloom for the first time in five years. In addition to creating a healthier world, Smartwater donates a percentage of each sale to “Action for Healthy Kids,” a program that will adjust school environments to help kids exercise more and eat and drink well.

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V. Journal Article Review: Microbiological Safety of Natural Mineral Water

The article analyzes the composition of natural mineral water and explains different health hazards that can result from drinking too much of the substance. A distinct quality of natural mineral water is that it is, in fact, natural: it cannot be exposed to any type of decontamination that alters its biological components. If any minerals are extracted from the water, it is no longer truly natural. Certain laws require drinking water to undergo sanitation to remove pollutants. Minerals, however, are not considered pollutants because they are found in unpolluted groundwater, and are therefore allowed to stay.

While the minerals are natural, they aren’t necessarily good for human health. They’re made of metal and take a lot of effort to expunge from the body. They build up in the kidneys, and if too much mineral water enters the body in a short time, kidney failure can result. Mineral water may appear to be healthy, but there are much safer drinking options.

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Works Cited

"Glaceau Smartwater." Bottled Water Store Offers Unique Bottled Water,bottled Water News and Information,private and Custom Label Bottled Water. Web. 17 Feb. 2011. http://www.bottledwaterstore.com/smartwater.htm

"Is Mineral Water Harmful? - by Skien - Helium." Helium - Where Knowledge Rules. Web. 17 Feb. 2011. http://www.helium.com/items/51503-is-mineral-water-harmful.

"J. Darius Bikoff Biography - Life, Family, Childhood, Children, Name, School, Young, Son - Newsmakers Cumulation." Encyclopedia of World Biography. Web. 17 Feb. 2011. http://www.notablebiographies.com/newsmakers2/2007-A-Co/Bikoff-J-Darius.html.

"Keeping Your Electrolytes in Balance." Exercise - Get Weight Loss Advice, Cardio and Strength Training Workouts, Information on How to Get Started and More. Web. 17 Feb. 2011. http://exercise.about.com/b/2010/08/13/keeping-your-electrolytes-in-balance.htm.

Kondolojy,, Amanda. "Definition of Vapor Distilled Water EHow.com." EHow How To Do Just About Everything! How To Videos & Articles. Web. 17 Feb. 2011. http://www.ehow.com/about_5128247_definition-vapor-distilled-water.html.

Leclerc, H. and Moreau, A. (2002), Microbiological safety of natural mineral water. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 26: 207–222. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2002.tb00611.x

McGuigan, Brendan. "What Is an Electrolyte?" WiseGEEK: Clear Answers for Common Questions. Ed. Niki Foster. 15 Feb. 2011. Web. 16 Feb. 2011. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-an-electrolyte.htm.

"The Water Cycle." MBGnet. Web. 17 Feb. 2011. http://www.mbgnet.net/fresh/cycle/index.htm.

Discovery of Ice on Mars by Kelly Riebesell

Introduction:
     Using instruments on NASA's 2001 Odyssey Spacecraft, scientist found enormous amounts of ice just under the surface of Mars, on May 28, 2002, and again on September 25, 2009. They first found enough water ice that could fill Lake Michigan, twice over.  "It must be ice," said Phoenix Principal Investigator Peter Smith of the University of Arizona, Tucson. "These little clumps completely disappearing over the course of a few days, that is perfect evidence that it's ice. There had been some question whether the bright material was salt. Salt can't do that." Scientists were very excited to discovery that there is actually ice on mars.
Discovery:
           The Phoenix Mars Lander was only digging a trench in the soil when it came across dice-sized chunks of bright material.  The pieces later vanished, meaning they had to have been frozen water, that when exposed they melted.

           The ice found on Mars was only a few meters below the rubble on, but could run up to a kilometer thick.  Based on the features of the local impact craters, which are used to date the landscapes on Mars,  it is suspected that the ice sheets existed tens to hundreds of millions of years ago.  Although that may seem like a long time ago, compared to the billions of years that have passed since mars might have been capable of supporting liquid water, it's nothing.  This shows that Mars can have very long-term climate changes, because of the gradual wobble in the tilt of the planet's axis.  The wobble creates periods when Mars poles dip very low, allowing the sun to shine more on the poles in the respective summer time.
        “We knew there was ice below the surface at high latitudes of Mars, but we find that it extends far closer to the equator than you would think, based on Mars’ climate today,” said Shane Byrne of the University of Arizona, a member of the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment.  “The other surprising discovery is that ice exposed at the bottom of these meteorite impact craters is so pure,” Byrne said. “The thinking before was that ice accumulates below the surface between soil grains, so there would be a 50-50 mix of dirt and ice. We were able to figure out, given how long it took that ice to fade from view, that the mixture is about one percent dirt and 99 percent ice.”
Biography of Investigator:
            Technically there is no specific person that was the investigator of the ice found on Mars, but the real investigator would be the Phoenix Mars Lander. NASA's invention of the Phoenix plays a very important role in the space exploration, especially in exploring Mars and any possible traces of life on the planet.  The scout class missions are led by a scientist known as the principle investigator, Peter Smith.  He is responsible for the missions the Phoenix undergoes and all the aspects of it.  It is not just Peter Smith alone; there is also a team of people involved in the missions, making sure everything runs smoothly with the Phoenix.  This powerful team is responsible for the Phoenix mission.  Their ultimate plans are to pave the way for future robotic missions, and possibly, human exploration.
Impact on the World/Humanity:

       The discovery of water ice on Mars has a huge impact on predicting possible new discoveries and finding out if there is life on Mars.  As we have found on Earth, wherever there is water and heat, there is life, so this is very encouraging for the search of possible life on Mars.  

        This discovery is also very beneficial for the astronauts that will go on future missions to Mars, because they now know they will have an easy access to water, hydrogen, and oxygen.  Water is very heavy and difficult to transport, but for the scientists who plan to go and establish a base there, they may be able to purify the water just under the surface of Mars to drink.

        Water is the essential ingredient in survival.  Without it, most of the biological processes needed for life will not take place.  With the discovery of water ice just under the surface of Mars, there can now be made theories that Mars had been a much wetter place and it is possible that the water could have been a substantial part of Mar's surface in the past.

        It is very exciting for scientists who spend their life researching Mars to have this discovery.  This tells them that it is very possible life could have evolved on Mars, even more excitingly, human life could still be hidden in tiny pockets beneath the surface of Mars.

Journal Article Review:

         The Phoenix is designed to study the history of water and also to study and search for complex organic molecules in Mar's soil.  Mars is a cold desert planet that has no liquid water on it's surface.  In 2002, large amounts of sub-surface water ice was found in the northern arctic plains.  This is the main region the Phoenix lander targets.  It digs its robotic arm through the surface to dig up both soil and water ice for scientists to then analyze.  The Phoenix explores the habitability of the environment by using chemical experiments.  These assess the soil's composition to see if the is life-giving elements, such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and hydrogen.

        Mars is very cold and dry with a  thin carbon dioxide layer.  Therefore, the discover of water ice on Mars was a huge discovery! The surface of Mars has no liquid water.  There are no rivers, no lakes, and no oceans.  There is no evidence of water present on the surface currently, but there is building evidence of past presence of water on the surface of Mars.

 


     

      





List of References:
Found it! Ice on Mars | . Retrieved January 29, 2011, from http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2002/28may_marsice/
Ice on Mars an important breakthrough | . Retrieved February 4, 2011, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/3345155/Ice-on-Mars-an-important-breakthrough.html
Launched in August 2007, the Phoenix Mars Mission is the first in NASA's Scout Program. Phoenix is designed to study the history of water and habitability potential in the Martian arctic's ice-rich soil. | . Retrieved February 4, 2011, http://phoenix.lpl.arizona.edu/mission.php
A Martian's view of Mars | . Retrieved February 5, 2011, from http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/a-martians-view-of-mars-1036906.html?action=Gallery&ino=3
Phoenix Mars Mission | . Retrieved February 16, 2011, from phoenix.lpl.arizona.edu/pdf/fact_sheet.pdf

The Polio Vaccine by John Stiffler

I. Introduction


Poliomyelitis, or Polio, is a disease which has afflicted mankind for centuries. It causes a withering and deformation in the legs,weakening of the spine, and neurological malformation, often occurring among young children and causing the need for a cane or wheelchair. A constant fear for parents, it couldn't be stopped, only slowed. Then, in 1952, Jonas Salk created a vaccine for the virus. After several years of testing, it was released in 1955 and saved the lives of millions of children. This vaccine was one of the most important medical developments of the 20th century, and has become one of the most important vaccines ever created.

II. Creation

While Polio was first diagnosed in 1789, it may have existed for thousands of years before that. At first it only affected small numbers of children or those in more remote parts of the world, but in 1900, several small epidemics broke out in Noth America and Europe. By 1950, the disease had peaked into a pandemic, infecting 58,000 people in the US alone in 1952. During the 1930's and 40's, many doctors and medical professionals attempted to create a cure. Federal funding, supported by Congress, was given to many researches in hopes of finding a cure. In the late 40's, John Enders was able to cultivate the virus in human tissue. This led to the research of Jonas Salk, who began researching in the early 50's. In 1952, he had a breakthrough, and created the Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine (IPV), which was an injection of dead polio cells. After three years of testing on several large groups of children, he published his results in 1955, and massive vaccination campaigns began. Another man, Albert Sabin, used Salk's to create the Oral Poliovirus Vaccine (OPV), which was made from attenuated (weakened) polio cells, and was easier to administer. As a result, the two vaccines, of which Salk's remained the most prominent, went into wide-scale production.

III. Biography

Jonas Salk was born on October 28, 1914, in New York City, to Russian-Jewish immigrants. Graduating from the City College of New York City in 1934, studying at New York University for his Ph.D., focusing in bacteriology and biochemistry. After residence as a lab assistant at Mount Sinai Hospital, Salk worked at the University of Michigan, devoloping Influenza vaccines. Then, in 1947, Salk began working in the for the University of Pittsburgh as a researcher. As the fight aginst polio became a nationwide, heavily-funded research project, Salk went on board the project and attempted to create his own vaccine using the much safer killed polio cells. Using himself, his wife, and children as willing test subjects, he reached a conclusion in 1952. In 1954, large field tests began on 220,000 volunteers. On April 12, 1955, he published his findings, stating the vaccine was a success. Huge vaccination campaigns followed, immunizing 100 million people in two years. After facing a large controversial battle with Dr. Albert Sabin, who created the OPV, Salk was backed by the Federal government, and his vaccine became the most widely accepted. Going on to further researching cures for cancer and a common cold vaccine, Salk opened the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in 1963. In the 1980's, he began work on finding a cure for AIDS. On June 20, 1995, the 80-year-old Salk died of heart failure. He is honored as the creator one of the greatest medical achievements in history.

IV. Impact on The World

Jonas Salk's polio vaccine was one of the most important medical discoveries of the 20th century, and perhaps in all of history. Before his discovery, tens of thousands were infected in America alone every year. His vaccine was able to save the lives of millions of people, and prevent the disease infecting many people not yet born. His research has allowed for the immunization of hundreds of millions of children around the world. By the 1980's, polio had been 97% eradicated, becoming an extemely rare illness. Today, all children are immunized as infants and again throughoght the first few years of life. In the US and in much of Europe, Latin America, and Eastern Asia, polio has been destroyed. Immunization efforts continue in Africa and the Middle East in hopes that the disease will be completely eradicated. Jonas Salk's contribution to the medical world has save millions and as a result, I've never met or seen anyone with polio. May 6th is Dr. Jonas E. Salk Day.

V. Journal Article

In the journal article titled "50th Anniversary of th Polio Vaccine", the results of the polio vaccine since it was introduced in 1955 are discussed. The author discusses how over the seventeen years that a cure was researched, millions of people came together to support and help each other, volunteering to let themselves be used as test subjects and assisstants. Communities joined together in one national fight against a disease. Since the licensure of the vaccine, the disease has disappeared in America. However, the article goes on to say, the disease is still prevalent in many parts of the world, such as Africa and the Middle East. The Global Polio Eradication Initiative works towards the destruction of the disease. Because of their immunization efforts, the disease has dwindled to 1,200 repoted cases a year worldwide. The article concludes that the reason why polio is gone in the US is because the government completely backed the research for a cure. Other countries aren't as lucky, and because of that, everyone must work together for complete global immunization.

VI. Conclusion

In conclusion, Jonas Salk's research was able to almost completely destroy a disease that had ravaged milllions of lives in under a hundred years. His creation of the IPV was a feat of medical science. With help from the research of many other men and women of his time, he was able to create, test, and release a successful vaccine in only three years. His discovery has saved the lives of hundreds of millions of people throughout the world. His achievement is the reason why many people today have been able to lead successful, happy lives. Because of the Inactivated Polio Vaccine, an extremely harmful disease is almost completely gone.

References

1. 50th Anniversary of the Polio Vaccine. (2005). Journal of Environmental Health, 68.

2. Oshinsky, David M. (2005). Polio: An American Story. Oxford University Press.

3. Seytre, Bernard, Shaffer, Mary. (2005). The Death of a Disease: A History of the Eradicate of Poliomyelitis. Rutgers University Press.